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The Spectrum of Multilingualism – Part 1: From Early Definitions to Contemporary Perspectives

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Bilingualism, Multilingualism and Plurilingualism

 

Bilingualism has long been a subject of linguistic and cognitive inquiry, evolving from strict early definitions to more fluid and inclusive conceptualizations. It has been reflecting different research paradigms, cultural contexts and social attitudes toward language use.

Early definitions emphasized fluency and equal competence in two languages, whilst more recent approaches recognize the spectrum of abilities and functions, reflecting broader changes in our understanding of language use, cognition, and identity. 

Bilingualism, Multilingualism and Plurilingualism – in a nutshell

The term bilingualism traditionally referred to individuals using two languages, while mulitlingualism described the coexistence of multiple languages side-by-side in a society but are utilized separately. For example, in Switzerland, four national languages and numerous dialects coexist within distinct domains. More recently, multilingualism has also been applied to smaller social units, such as families, who actively use multiple languages or dialects (Hamers & Blanc, 2000).

The term plurilingualism was introduced to distinguish individual linguistic competence from societal multilingualism. While Denison (1970) initially discussed multilingual contexts involving multiple languages, the concept of plurilingualism evolved to focus on the individual as an active agent in managing and integrating their linguistic repertoire. Coste, More and Zarate (1997) further emphasized that plurilingualism represents the dynamic interplay of languages within a speaker’s communicative practices, contrasting with multilingualism’s focus on societal language coexistence. This theoretical shift underscored that languages within an individual’s repertoire are interconnected rather than compartmentalized. 

The Council of Europe (1997) formalized plurilingualism to highlight the agency of individuals in leveraging multiple languages for communication across various contexts. This term has since gained prominence, particularly in French discourse, where it is commonly used to describe individuals with diverse linguistic repertoires. 

In this post, I use bilingualism, multilingualism, plurilingualism to refer to individuals who navigate multiple languages, dialects, or sign languages, while acknowledging the distinct theoretical nuances outlined by Denison (1970), Hamers & Blanc (2000), and Coste et al. (1997).

Early Definitions: Bilingualism as Native-Like Mastery

At the beginning of the 20th century, one of the earliest and most rigid definitions came from Bloomfield (1933), who described bilingualism as “native-like control of two languages”. 

His perspective also implied that bilinguals must acquire both languages early and with “full proficiency”, mirroring monolingual competence in each language.

This narrow perspective assumes that bilingual individuals must not only acquire and learn both languages from early on (before age 3), but also exhibit equal proficiency in both languages across all domains. However, such a definition excluded many individuals who learned additional languages later, and those who actively use multiple languages in their daily lives without achieving native-like competence in all of them.

A More Inclusive Perspective: Degrees of Bilingualism

Haugen (1953) challenged Bloomfield’s view by proposing that bilingualism exists on a continuum. Instead of requiring native-like proficiency, he suggested that bilingualism begins when a speaker can produce meaningful utterances in another language. 

This view assumes that bilinguals must possess perfect (!) fluency in both languages, like “two monolinguals in one”. This rather rigid definition excluded the majority of real-life bilinguals who use their languages in a variety of contexts, for specific purposes and to various extent.
Diebold (1961) introduced the concept of incipient bilingualism, referring to the earliest stages of bilingual development (or “the initial stages of contact between two languages”). This helped frame bilingualism as a process rather than an all-or-nothing phenomenon.

Bilingualism as a Functional and Social Phenomenon

As the early definitions of bilingualism set rather unrealistic expectations, researchers began to adopt a more practical approach. 

Weinreich (1953) categorized bilinguals into “coordinate”, “compound”, and “subordinate” types, depending on how their linguistic systems interact. 

Mackey (1970) considered bilingualism as the “alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual”, and focused on the use of the languages rather than equal proficiency. Following the need to examine bilingualism along multiple dimensions, including proficiency, function, and stability, he argued that bilingualism is not a static state but a dynamic process shaped by social and individual factors.

Macnamara (1967) introduced the idea that even individuals with minimal proficiency in a second language should be considered bilingual if they can use it functionally. A minimal competence in only one of the four language skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – in a language other than the mother tongue was necessary.

This perspective paved the way for recognizing partial and receptive bilinguals – those who understand but may not actively or verbally produce a second language.

Bilingualism as a Dynamic Continuum

Weinreich (1953) defined bilingualism as “the practice of alternately using two languages”, laying the foundation for later scholars like Grosjean (1982), who challenged the traditional notion of bilinguals as two monolinguals in one person. Instead, bilingualism is best understood as a fluid, context-dependent process where individuals integrate both languages into their cognitive and communicative repertoire. This holistic perspective recognizes code-switching  and code-mixing as natural and strategic bilingual behaviours, rather than signs of confusion or deficiency. 

Bilingualism in Society and Individual Identity

Romaine (2019) and Wei (2020) emphasize that bilingualism is not merely an individual trait but a societal and interactive phenomenon. Multilingual societies shape how individuals navigate their linguistic environments, influencing identity and communication.

Grosjean (1985, 2010) further dismantled the “fractional view” of bilingualism – the idea that bilinguals should mirror monolingual proficiency in each language. Instead, his complementary principle highlights that bilinguals use their languages in different domains, and for different purposes, making the notion of perfectly “balanced” bilingualism both unrealistic and unnecessary.

Contemporary Understandings of Bilingualism

Bilingualism is not merely an individual skill but is deeply embedded in education, policy, and identity (Baker, 2001; Baker & Wright, 2017). Using more than one language on a regular basis, rather than being an exception, is the global norm for over half of the world’s population. Individuals and communities navigate multiple languages seamlessly, challenging rigid distinctions between bilingual and monolingual speakers. In the digital age, concepts like translanguaging (Wei, 2020) emphasize how multilinguals dynamically draw from their full linguistic repertoire, reshaping traditional views of communication.

This dynamic interplay of languages occurs on both individual and societal levels. Societal bilingualism refers to entire communities functioning bilingually, while individual bilingualism focuses on a person’s use of multiple languages (Baker & Wright, 2017). The distinction mirrors that between bilingualism and multilingualism, with the former often describing an individual’s proficiency in two or more languages, while the latter refers to societal contexts where multiple languages coexist. Context – whether in family, education, or community  – plays a crucial role in shaping bilingual experiences.
To further categorize these settings, researchers distinguish between micro-, meso- and macro-societies. Micro-societies, such as families or close-knit communities, shape language practices through personal relationships. Meso-societies, including schools and workplaces, mediate language policies and practices between individuals and broader societal structures. Macro-societies operate at national or global levels, reflecting overarching language ideologies, policies, and sociolinguistic trends.

These layers reveal how multilingual experiences are shaped by their environments, reinforcing the need for a contextualized understanding of bilingualism. As we all use different languages depending on the setting or context, I tend to prefer the use of “multilingual” person or “multilingualism” whenever more than two languages are involved. Hence, the name of this website. 

 

 

The Use of Multiple Languages in Family and Society

In multilingual families, the use of multiple languages takes on diverse forms, shaped by strategies such as Minority Language at Home (mLAH), One Person One Language (OPOL), Time and Place, Two Persons Two Languages, or a flexible mix of approaches. The goal is not necessarily to achieve “native-like” proficiency but to foster meaningful communication, identity, and intergenerational connection. Language use in family settings is dynamic, adapting to shifting circumstances, relationships and social needs.

Defining who is bilingual or multilingual or plurilingual (whatever term you prefer) remains a challenge. As Baker (2001) notes, proficiency cannot be reduced to rigid benchmarks in listening, speaking, reading, or writing. Instead, the bilingualism/ multilingualism/ plurilingualism should be understood in terms of function – how individuals use their languages in real-life contexts. A person who understands a language but does not speak it, or who can read and write but struggles in conversation, is still engaging in bilingual practices. In languages without standardized written forms, spoken fluency alone may define competence. The complexity of multilingual abilities highlights the limitations of traditional proficiency-based definitions.

Baker (2001, 5) illustrates this fluidity:

The four basic language abilities do not exist in black and white terms. Between black and white are not only many shades of gray; there also exist a wide variety of colors. The multi-colored landscape of bilingual abilities suggests that each language ability can be more or less developed.

This “multi-colored landscape” of bi-/multilingualism reflects the variation in language skills, from basic comprehension to nuanced fluency, and from informal conversational abilities to academic or professional expertise.

Sub-skills such as pronunciation, vocabulary depth, and grammatical accuracy further complicate the picture. Importantly, formal language assessments often fail to capture the social and practical dimensions of multilingual competence, overlooking skills essential for real-world interactions.

Rather than a binary state, multilingualism is a fluid and dynamic spectrum, shaped by individual experiences, societal contexts and communicative needs. It emerges from extensive contact between languages, manifesting at national, community and personal levels. As Wei (2006) emphasizes, bilingualism lies at the core of modern linguistics, raising fundamental questions about language acquisition, use, and the human capacity for multilingual communication. Recognizing its complexity allows us to better support bilingual individuals, families, and communities in meaningful and effective ways.

Bilingualism is a product of extensive contact between people speaking different languages; it manifests both at the national and community level and at the individual level. Bilingualism as a research topic is at the heart of modern linguistics, raising fundamental theoretical issues of the human language faculty, language acquisition and language use. (Wei, 2006)

Conclusion

Our understanding of bilingualism has evolved from Bloomfield’s rigid definition to a more dynamic, socially embedded perspective. Like multilingualism and plurilingualism, it  is no longer seen as a fixed category, but recognized as a fluid and functional reality, shaped by individual experiences, societal structures, and communicative needs. Rather than measuring proficiency through rigid benchmarks, contemporary research emphasizes how languages are used in real-world contexts – whether within families, schools, workplaces, or broader societal settings.

As translanguaging (Wei, 2020) demonstrates, individuals who regularly use several languages, seamlessly draw from their full linguistic repertoire, challenging traditional distinctions between monolingual and bilingual speakers. Likewise, the recognition of micro-, meso-, and macro-societal influences (Baker & Wright, 2017) highlights the contextual nature of bilingualism, showing that language use is deeply embedded in relationships, policies, and ideologies. The “multi-colored landscape” of bilingual abilities (Baker, 2001) further reinforces that bilingualism is not a binary state but a dynamic spectrum, where different skills develop and manifest in varying ways.

As societies and communication in multilingual settings continue to evolve, so too will our understanding of bilingualism. Acknowledging its complexity allows us to normalize multilingual individuals, families and communities, whose language practices should not only be valued for their proficiency but also for their role in identity, connection and social interaction.  

Multilingualism is a dynamic spectrum where different skills develop and manifest in varying ways.

Looking Ahead: Real Stories from Multilingual Families  

While this first part focuses on the evolving definitions and theoretical understandings of bilingualism (multilingualism and plurilingualism), Part 2 will shift from theory to lived experience, bringing to light the voices behind the concepts – parents, children, and educators navigating life in more than one language.

From joyful discoveries to everyday challenges, these personal stories will reveal the many shades of what it means to grow up and raise multilingual children abroad.

Stay tuned!

 

References:

Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters.

Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2017). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (6th ed.). Multilingual Matters.

Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (1997). Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence. Council of Europe.

Coste, D., Moore, D., Zarate, G. (2009). “Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence”. Council of Europe.

Council of Europe. (1997). Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of Reference.

Denison, N. (1970). “Sociolinguistic Aspects of Plurilingualism”. Social Science. 45 (2): 98-101.

Diebold, A. R. (1961). “Incipient Bilingualism.” Language, 37(1), 97-112.

Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism, HUP.

Grosjean, F. (1985). “The bilingual as a competent but specific speaker-hearer.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 6(6), 467-477.

Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press.

Haugen, E. (1953). “The Norwegian language in America: A study in bilingual behavior.” Publication of the American Institute, 1, 88-92.

Hamers, J.F., Blanc, M.H.A. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. 2nd ed., CUP.

Macnamara, J. (1967). “The bilingual’s linguistic performance – a psychological overview.” Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 58-77.

Mackey, W.F. (1962). The Description of Bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 7(2), 51-85.

Romaine, S. (2019). Bilingualism. 2nd edition. Blackwell.

Wei, L. (2006). Bilingualism, Ed. Keith Brown, Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition), Elsevier, 1-12.

Wei, L. (2020). Translanguaging as a Practical Theory of Language. Routledge.

Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. Mouton.

How to Help Multilingual Children Feel Proud of Their Language and Identity

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Belonging, self-esteem, and the everyday superpower of growing up between languages.

Language is more than words. It’s culture, it’s the sound of our childhood, the rhythm of family, the invisible thread that binds identity and belonging. For multilingual families raising children away from their heritage homeland, the challenge often lies not only in passing on a language—but in nurturing pride in it.

I recently had the chance to discuss with Dimitris Karagiorgas — a psychiatrist specialized in child and adolescent mental health, with a background in cognitive behavioral and art therapy — and we explored the deep connection between language, belonging, and identity. Dimitris reminded me that belonging is not just a feeling. It is a deep psychological need:

“Belonging is a harbor from which the ships of exploration set sail. It is identity, spatial and temporal anchoring, a sense of security and understanding.”

But for many migrant families, this sense of belonging is fragile. Moving to a new country can mean leaving behind not just people and places, but parts of ourselves. As Dimitris told me:

“Migration is not just the act of relocating. It is also a separation from one’s culture, habits, language, family and friends—often with an undefined end date.”

This separation, when unacknowledged or unsupported, may lead to a lingering sense of exile. Children—those “sensitive sensors of the family system,” as Karagiorgas puts it—can feel this tension, even if they cannot name it. Their identities form at the intersection of multiple worlds: school and home, local culture and ancestral memory, dominant and minority languages.

So how do we help them build pride in who they are?

1. Start with Yourself

Our children watch us closely. If we are ashamed, hesitant, or apologetic about our language and culture, they will be too. If we embrace our multilingual reality with joy, they will feel free to do the same.

Dimitris emphasizes that:

“Children show us, through the way they exist, how well we as adults are defending this condition of multilingual, multicultural life.”

2. Honor All the Worlds Your Children Inhabit

Children in multilingual families live in-between. And that’s okay. Rather than pushing them to “choose” one identity, we can celebrate the richness of their in-between-ness. Every language they speak, every culture they experience, is part of who they are.

“If the soul of a people is to be found somewhere, it is in its language.”

Let’s not ask our children to choose which soul to keep. Let them have both.

3. Create Community

“Where I participate, I live,” Karagiorgas says. Community support is key. Children—and their families—need spaces where their multilingualism is not “different,” but normal. Heritage language programs, playgroups, cultural activities, and friendships with others in similar situations help children feel seen.

4. Make Your Language Their Language 

Language is not just a skill to be learned—it’s a relationship to be nurtured. When we connect it with love, humor, play, music, storytelling, emotions, memories, then it becomes meaningful. It becomes alive. It becomes theirs.

 

5. Accept the Complexity

Not every child will speak every language equally. That’s okay. What matters most is not “perfect fluency,” but a sense of connection. A child who feels that their language and culture are valued is more likely to embrace them, now and in the future.

A gentle reminder:

Let’s remind our children — and ourselves — that multilingualism is a superpower.
The ability to speak more than one language is a gift. A super skill.
And yes, if it helps, don’t be afraid to call them superheroes.
Because that’s what they are: cultural superheroes, navigating worlds with courage, humor, and heart.

To conclude

In the discussion I had with Dimitris, he said something that shook me:

“Whoever has held a suitcase in their hand, even once, may never feel like they fully belong again.”

It sounded so dramatic, so definite — and in a way, it struck a nerve.

But then I took those words and reflected on my life, raising multilingual children abroad, my multicultural friends, all the wonderful families I have met, juggling 2, 3, even 4 languages and the communities we’ve all built around us.
That’s when I realized: through language, love, and community, we can help our children carry that suitcase with pride. Not as a burden, but as a treasure chest — full of voices, songs, stories, and the confidence to say:

“I belong to many places, and all of them belong to me.”

And maybe that’s the beauty of it all.

“Only when you share someone else’s culture do you become richer.
 It is the only kind of sharing that doesn’t make you poorer.
 Usually, when you share something, you are left with less.
 But when you share culture, you lose nothing.”

— Hélène Glykatzi-Ahrweiler

Multilingual Societies

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Multilingual societies are a testament to the vibrancy and complexity of human culture, where multiple languages coexist and evolve within a shared social framework. These societies are not simply collections of diverse linguistic groups but intricate networks of communication that weave together histories, cultural identities, and social dynamics. The interplay between various languages and dialects in multilingual communities creates rich tapestries that reflect the diverse experiences and traditions of their members.

Defining Multilingual Societies

A multilingual society is one in which multiple languages and dialects are actively used across different domains – be it in the home, at school, in the workplace, or in public life.

The coexistence of these languages is not only a matter of daily communication but also a reflection of the community’s diverse histories and the continuous interaction of various social, cultural, and political forces.

The ability to speak and navigate between multiple languages provides individuals in these societies with a deeper understanding of their own identities while promoting understanding and collaboration between different groups.

In such societies, the use of language can be fluid, shifting depending on the context, purpose, and the participants involved in the interaction. This dynamic nature of multilingualism is what makes multilingual societies particularly interesting – they are always in flux, adapting to changing social realities while preserving the unique cultural heritage of each language.

Key Characteristics of Multilingual Societies

1. Diglossia and the Role of Varieties

One of the defining characteristics of many multilingual societies is the phenomenon of diglossia, where two or more varieties of the same language coexist, each having a distinct role in society. This concept, first introduced by sociolinguist Charles Ferguson in the 1950s, is particularly evident in societies like those in the Arab world. For example, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is typically used in formal contexts, such as in the media, literature, and religious settings. On the other hand, local dialects, such as Egyptian Arabic, are used in everyday interactions and casual conversations. This distinction between high and low varieties of a language serves as a way to maintain both cultural and social order, allowing for functional diversity within the same linguistic system.

Diglossia exists not only in the Arabic-speaking world but also in many other multilingual societies. In Switzerland, for example, German, French, and Italian are spoken in distinct regions, and these languages are used in formal and governmental settings. Meanwhile, regional dialects play an important role in social interactions, demonstrating how different linguistic varieties have their place in different domains of life.

2. The Richness of Dialects

Another fascinating aspect of multilingual societies is the presence of dialects, which add depth and texture to the linguistic landscape. Dialects are variations of a language that are often regionally or socially distinct. While Standard Italian is the official language of Italy, it coexists with a variety of regional dialects, such as Neapolitan, Venetian, or Sicilian. These dialects are not simply colloquial forms of the language but have their own unique lexicons, grammar, and cultural histories.

The presence of dialects within a multilingual society enriches cultural identity by reflecting the historical and geographical diversity of the community. Dialects are more than just ways of speaking; they are repositories of local traditions, folklore, and ways of life. For example, a speaker of Venetian might use words and expressions that reflect the history of the region, its unique interactions with other cultures, and its role in maritime trade.

While there is often a tension between the prestige of a standard language and the value of dialects, multilingual societies offer the potential for dialects to be celebrated and preserved. In places like Italy, the revival of interest in regional dialects is part of a larger cultural movement to maintain connections with local traditions and histories, even as the country embraces globalization and modernity.

3. Code-Switching and Language Shifts

Individuals in multilingual societies often shift between languages or dialects depending on the context in which they are communicating. This code-switching is a common phenomenon in these societies, where speakers fluidly alternate between languages or varieties of language within a conversation.

India provides a rich example of code-switching in action. In many urban areas, it is not uncommon for individuals to mix Hindi and English within a single sentence, especially in workspaces or social settings. This practice – often referred to as Hinglish – reflects the intersection of India’s rich linguistic diversity with the global influence of English. In multilingual societies, code-switching serves as a pragmatic tool for communication, allowing speakers to express themselves more effectively by drawing from a wider range of linguistic resources.

Code-switching can also serve as a marker of social identity and group membership. In multilingual societies, speakers often shift between languages to signal their affiliation with a particular group, region, or social class. For instance, a person in Spain might alternate between Catalan and Spanish depending on whether they are speaking with family, friends, or colleagues. These language shifts are not just about communication but about positioning oneself within a social context, reinforcing shared experiences, and maintaining a sense of belonging.

4. The Cognitive Benefits of Multilingualism

Living in a multilingual society also has cognitive advantages. Research has shown that multilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced mental agility and adaptability. Exposure to different languages and dialects helps improve cognitive flexibility, as individuals constantly switch between different linguistic systems. This ability to switch between languages fosters better problem-solving skills, increased creativity, and an enhanced capacity for multitasking.

Moreover, multilingualism is linked to improved executive functions, such as working memory, attention control, and the ability to focus. In a multilingual society, individuals who are constantly interacting with different languages and linguistic varieties develop stronger mental skills that can be transferred to other areas of life, including academic achievement, professional success, and interpersonal relationships.

The Role of Multilingual Societies in Fostering Communication

Multilingual societies are more than just linguistic landscapes; they are spaces of cross-cultural exchange and communication. In such societies, languages serve as bridges that connect diverse communities, fostering collaboration, mutual understanding, and social cohesion. Through language, individuals from different linguistic backgrounds can share ideas, build relationships, and negotiate shared meanings.

The use of multiple languages in a society also supports the preservation of diverse traditions and histories.

Languages are not static: they evolve and adapt to the needs of the communities that use them. In multilingual societies, this linguistic dynamism allows for the ongoing revitalization of cultural practices, as speakers continue to innovate and adapt their languages to new social realities.

Challenges of Multilingual Societies

While multilingual societies offer a wealth of opportunities, they also present challenges. One of the most significant challenges is the unequal prestige of languages. In many multilingual societies, certain languages are seen as more prestigious or valuable than others. For example, in Switzerland, while German, French, and Italian enjoy official status, the Romansh language has been marginalized, despite being one of the country’s national languages. Similarly, in many post-colonial countries, the dominance of colonial languages like English or French can overshadow indigenous languages, leading to their gradual decline.

The challenge of linguistic inequality is further compounded by globalization and the increasing prominence of English as a global lingua franca. As English becomes the dominant language of business, science, and technology, languages that are considered less prestigious on a global scale are at risk of disappearing, especially in societies where language shift is already occurring.

Ensuring linguistic equity is therefore a key challenge for multilingual societies. Governments, educational systems, and social institutions must work together to promote the value of all languages, ensuring that minoritised languages are not left behind. This requires policies that actively promote the use of these languages in public life, education, and media, and that support the teaching of these languages alongside more widely spoken ones.

Conclusion: Embracing Linguistic Creativity and Resilience

Despite the challenges, multilingual societies are a living proof of linguistic creativity and resilience. When languages and dialects are celebrated and nurtured, they enrich the cultural and social fabric of a society, making it more inclusive, dynamic, and adaptable.

Multilingual societies are spaces of constant linguistic innovation, where languages evolve and adapt to the needs of the people who speak them.

As we look towards the future, it is important to remember that multilingualism is not a challenge to be overcome but a resource to be cherished. In a world that is increasingly interconnected, multilingual societies offer valuable lessons in how to live together in linguistic harmony while celebrating the diversity that makes us unique.

 

References

  • Fishman, J. A. (1967). Bilingualism with and Without Diglossia; Diglossia with and Without Bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 29-38.
  • Edwards, J. (2012). Multilingualism: Understanding Linguistic Diversity. Continuum.
  • Aronin, L., & Singleton, D. (2012). Multilingualism. Oxford University Press.

Foreign Language Education in Dutch Schools: What Multilingual Families Should Know

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When relocating to the Netherlands, navigating the education system can be challenging, especially for multilingual families. A key aspect often overlooked is how foreign languages are integrated into the curriculum, supporting children in maintaining and developing their multilingual skills.

Primary Education: Early Foreign Language Learning (vvto)

Dutch primary schools are increasingly offering Early Foreign Language Teaching (Vroeg Vreemdetalenonderwijs – vvto), focusing on English, German, or French. English is a mandatory subject starting from grade 7, but many schools introduce it earlier, from grade 5 or even lower. According to Dutch law, schools can allocate up to 15% of their teaching time to a foreign language.

The benefits of early multilingual learning are well-established:

  • Young children absorb languages more easily through play.
  • Pronunciation and new sounds are more naturally adopted at a young age.
  • Cognitive skills are enhanced through multilingual learning.
  • Multilingualism fosters cultural tolerance and acceptance.

However, the success of vvto largely depends on the teacher’s proficiency in the foreign language. Schools must ensure a structured and continuous learning approach, often guided by the European Framework of Reference for Languages (ECFR). Several schools in the Netherlands offer vvto. The highest concentration can be found in the Randstad.

Secondary Education: Expanding Language Choices

In secondary education, foreign language learning becomes more diversified. Students must study one or two additional languages alongside English.

For havo and vwo students (college preparatory tracks), both French and German are mandatory. In some cases, these can be replaced by languages like Spanish, Russian, Italian, Arabic, Turkish, or Chinese (for vwo only). At schools with ‘Gymnasium’, Latin and Greek are also required.

For vmbo students (vocational track), one foreign language, usually French or German, is mandatory, with similar alternatives available.

Frisian as a Compulsory Language

In Friesland, Frisian is a mandatory subject in junior secondary education, though some exemptions exist depending on the region.

Upper Secondary Education: Language Specialization

At the upper levels of havo and vwo, English is compulsory for final exams, with the option to choose additional modern foreign languages, depending on the school’s offerings. Students in the culture and society track of havo must take a second foreign language.

Bilingual Education (TTO)

For families seeking deeper integration of foreign languages, bilingual education (Tweetalig Onderwijs – TTO) is available. TTO involves partial instruction in a foreign language, typically English. In the lower grades, at least 50% of the curriculum is taught in the foreign language for havo and vwo, and 30% for vmbo. However, final exams are conducted in Dutch.

TTO schools also offer international activities like language trips and exchanges, and students receive a certificate attesting to their extra language skills upon graduation.

The 2 most important characteristics of bilingual education are:

  • The teachers have had special tto training
  • Teaching in a foreign language must not be at the expense of Dutch language development

“It is important to note that bilingual education in Dutch schools focuses on children with Dutch as native language who want to learn another (often English) language.” 

 

Explore in-depth: The full, detailed article on Dutch for Children

If you’d like to explore this topic in more depth, you can read the full, detailed article on our website here. You can also read this article in Dutch, and find more information on the Dutch education system and how it supports multilingual families.

 

How to Read Bilingual Books with Emergent Readers: A Guide for Simultaneous and Successive Bilinguals

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How to Read Bilingual Books with Emergent Readers: A Guide for Simultaneous and Successive Bilinguals

We can support early literacy and bilingual language development of emergent readers by using bilingual books.
However, it is important to tailor reading strategies to the child’s bilingual background. Children acquiring two languages simultaneously (simultaneous bilinguals) have a different language experience compared to those who learn a second language after establishing a foundation in one language (successive bilinguals).

Both groups can benefit from bilingual books, but their needs and approaches may vary.

Bilingual books are sometimes referred to as “Dual Language Books” or “Side-by-Side-Books”, i.e. with two different languages on the same page, with the one language being the translation of the other. 

With emergent reader we define a person who is interested in books but can’t yet read them independently, or may be able to read some words but requires continued support to make meaning from print.

“Emergent readers are working on lots of goals: they’re learning more letters of the alphabet, expanding their perspectives through new books, and taking big steps toward writing. To support an emergent reader, literacy experts suggest (…) reading strategies to help them advance toward reading fluency.”

(I invite you to read the full article Developing Readers vs Emergent Readers on:  readingteacher.com)

In this short guide, I share how to effectively use bilingual books with emergent readers, and I distinguish between simultaneous and successive bilinguals. Simultaneous or successive multilingual emergent readers require a more tailored support that I will focus on in a separate post.
Here I focus on simultaneous bilingual emergent readers who have acquired both languages from birth (within their first few years) in a natural, spontaneous way, and where the school language or the language they learn to read in a formal setting, is also one of their home languages. They may have a balanced exposure to both languages at home and the community, but this is not a given and is difficult to measure or assess.

First of all, reading is a skill that is not acquired spontaneously like speaking. One does not learn how to read by constantly being read to. We need to “crack the code” of reading, which means that we need to learn how to give meaning to the signs on the page (or screen).
When exposed to reading books to and with them from early on, children will understand what decoding means. They will understand that the characters on the page have a meaning (in another post I explain how emergent readers become skilled readers with the help of the Reading Rope).

Bilingual books are not the only way to foster reading skills in more than one language, but they can be used to foster the same kind of vocabulary in both languages.

1. Choose the Right Bilingual Book

For both simultaneous and successive bilinguals, selecting an age-appropriate and engaging bilingual book is essential. Books with rich illustrations, repetitive patterns, and familiar themes provide the necessary scaffolding for language learning.

However, the linguistic demands of the book should match the child’s language experience.

  • For Simultaneous Bilinguals, books that integrate both their languages naturally and seamlessly are ideal. Look for books where both languages are presented with equal prominence to foster a balanced exposure.

  • Successive Bilinguals are introduced to a second (or additional) language after the foundation of their first language(s), typically after age three. This introduction usually happens in formal settings (at school). They benefit from bilingual books where the stronger language is used to support the acquisition of the weaker language. Books that gradually introduce the second/weaker language, perhaps with more text in their more dominant language and keywords or phrases in the new language, can make the transition smoother.

Tip:

For successive bilingual emergent readers, choose books that start with more content in their dominant language and slowly introduce the target language to ease the learning process.

For simultaneous bilinguals emergent readers, who already know and use both languages, look for books where both languages are given equal weight and representation.

2. Engaging with Both Languages

The way you use both languages during reading sessions should vary based on the children’s bilingual status.

  • Simultaneous Bilinguals are accustomed to switching between languages naturally. However, although they can alternate between the two languages more fluidly when speaking, when it comes to reading, avoid alternating the languages in one setting, i.e. do not read one section in one language, and the next in the other. You can do this in a second step. Once the children can decode (i.e. read) in both languages you can invite them to compare the vocabulary and structure (if they are interested). This metalinguistic approach can help to reinforce both languages in a more balanced way, i.e. they can learn new vocabulary in both their languages. It is crucial to follow the children’s lead: simultaneous bilinguals do not translate or compare their languages! 

Simultaneous bilinguals might be relatively “balanced” in their languages when it comes to speaking, but this does in no way equal their fluency skills when it comes to decoding, i.e. reading! (Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD)

  • Successive Bilinguals who are emergent readers are still gaining proficiency in the second language. This means that they are still learning new words in the second language and need a lot of opportunities to be exposed to both in order to find ways to link new words to the terms they know – and those they are still learning (!) – in their first or more dominant (i.e. “stronger”) language!
    For successive bilinguals it is helpful to first explain or read the text in their more dominant language to ensure comprehension. Afterward, read the same section in the weaker language with them, focusing on key vocabulary or phrases.

This kind of approach from the more dominant to the new language is where children need help with. Language Friendly Schools can support the children by creating opportunities to discover the “new” (school) language through translanguaging activities that involve reading (and writing).

Bilingual books in the home language and the school language are ideal for successive bilinguals and/or newcomers! Children can read them in their home language with their parents first, and then, in class, in the school language. This way they already know what the text is about and can easier transmit their knowledge to the (weaker) school language and, with help of the teachers, easier decode the new language.

The primary goal is to build confidence in the second language without overwhelming the child.

Tip:

For successive bilingual emergent readers you can use the “sandwich technique” which consists in reading a sentence or passage in the dominant language, then in the second language, and again in the dominant language. Emergent readers might manage to decode the script quickly, but you may want to make sure that they also understand what they are reading/decoding!

With simultaneous bilingual emergent readers, try to foster each language at a time, not both together in the same setting. This separation seems a paradox, but simultaneous bilinguals do not constantly compare their languages, and are very good at separating their different languages in speech and when reading!

3. Using Visual Cues for Language Support

Emergent readers who are developing bilingual skills, rely heavily on visual cues to aid comprehension. Bilingual books with vivid illustrations that correspond closely to the text are highly effective for both simultaneous and successive bilinguals.

  • Simultaneous Bilinguals can process both languages concurrently and use the illustrations to bridge understanding between the two languages. Point to the images while reading and encourage the children to describe what they see in the language you are focusing on. Do the same, in another setting, with the other language. This helps them link the two linguistic systems in an effective way.

Never assume that terms and concepts are equally distributed and known in both languages! 

Simultaneous bilinguals learn their languages from different persons, for different purposes, in different domains of life and to various extent.

(Ute Limacher-Riebold; extended version of Grosjean, 2012)

  • For Successive Bilinguals, visuals are particularly important as they provide contextual support when the second language is less developed. Encourage the child to use the illustrations as clues to decode the meaning of unfamiliar words in the second language.

Tip:

For both types of emergent bilingual readers, use the pictures as a way to elicit language production. Ask the child to describe the pictures in the target language or use key vocabulary from the text.

 

4. Balancing Repetition and Predictability

Repetition is key to language learning, and bilingual books often use predictable patterns and repetitive structures that support language development. However, how repetition is used may vary between simultaneous and successive bilingual emergent readers!

  • Simultaneous Bilinguals benefit from hearing the same story in both languages, as it reinforces linguistic patterns across their two languages. Repetition in both languages helps them recognize equivalent or different structures and vocabulary, strengthening their overall bilingualism. 

  • Successive Bilinguals need more repetition in their dominant language to ensure comprehension before being exposed to the second language. Once they are familiar with the story in the dominant language, repeating it in the second language allows them to focus on understanding without the cognitive load of learning the narrative itself.

Tip:

Read the same book multiple times in both languages, by alternating the languages in two separated sessions with simultaneous bilingual emergent readers. The focus here is to learn how to read in each language.

For successive bilingual emergent readers, ensure they are fully comfortable with the story in the dominant language before introducing more of the second language.

5. Creating a Positive, Interactive Environment

Creating a positive reading environment is critical for both simultaneous and successive bilinguals. Children thrive when they feel that reading is fun and interactive and not a task or lesson.

  • Simultaneous Bilinguals are used to navigating two (or more) languages. Make the reading experience as interactive as possible by using gestures, facial expressions, and even games to help them connect the two languages. (In The Toolbox for Multilingual Families you can find many activities and games that foster reading (and writing) for multilinguals!)

  • With Successive Bilinguals, ensure that the second language does not feel like a burden. Engage the children with interactive reading techniques—such as acting out scenes, using props, or encouraging them to guess what happens next—to make the process enjoyable.

Tip:

Celebrate small wins in both languages. Acknowledge the children’s progress and foster their confidence in both languages! 

 

Conclusion

Reading bilingual books with emergent readers is an invaluable way to support their bilingual development, but it’s important to tailor your approach to whether the children are simultaneous or successive bilinguals.

Simultaneous bilinguals usually benefit from a more balanced and integrated exposure to both languages when it comes to speaking. With regards to reading though, they are usually faster in the school or more dominant language, i.e. the language they have learned to read first.

Some bilingual children learn to read in multiple languages at the same time, i.e. simultaneously, for example in some CLIL schools. This is, alas, still the exception as it requires schools to offer tuition in both languages from very early on.

Successive bilinguals need additional support in their second language, with a focus on building confidence gradually.

By selecting the right books, using both languages strategically, incorporating visual cues, and fostering a positive reading environment, you can nurture the children’s bilingual abilities and foster a lifelong love of reading.

Simultaneous bilinguals who are exposed to three or more languages from birth and are learning to read in an additional language at school, benefit from reading in both, their home languages and the school language on a daily basis.

In my trainings and consultations I help families find the strategy that best works for them (parents and children!) when it comes to fostering reading skills in two, three or more languages. 

References:

  • Cummins, J. (2021). Rethinking the Education of Multilingual Learners: A Critical Analysis of Theoretical Concepts, Multilingual Matters.
  • De Houwer, A. (2009). Bilingual First Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters.
  • Genesee, F. (2002). Portrait of the Bilingual Child. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools.
  • Grosjean, F. (2012). Bilingualism: A short introduction. In F. Grosjean & P. Li (Eds.), The psycholinguistics of bilingualism (pp. 5–25). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters.
  • Tabors, P. O. (2008). One Child, Two Languages: A Guide for Early Childhood Educators of Children Learning English as a Second Language. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
  • Gort, M. (2012). Codeswitching Patterns in Bilingual Kindergarteners’ Literacy Practices. Early Childhood Education Journal.

Children are NOT translators or interpreters!

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Children are NOT translators or interpreters!

The Complex Role of Children: Why They Aren’t Translators or Interpreters for Immigrant Parents

In many immigrant families, children often find themselves in the position of translators or interpreters for their parents, bridging the gap between their parents’ native language and the language of their new country.
While this may seem like a practical solution to communication barriers, the role of children as translators and interpreters can have profound implications on their development, family dynamics, and emotional well-being.

Children are not professional translators or interpreters, and expecting them to fulfill this role can place undue pressure and responsibility on their shoulders.

Here are several reasons why children should not be relied upon as translators for their immigrant parents:

Developmental Limitations:

  • Children may not have fully developed language skills, especially in complex or technical matters. Translating or interpreting nuanced concepts accurately requires a deep understanding of both languages, which children may not possess. 

Emotional Burden:

  • Acting as translators or interpreters can place immense emotional strain on children, who may feel burdened by the responsibility of conveying sensitive or difficult information between their parents and the outside world. They may also feel the weight of responsibility for accurately transmitting important messages.

Role Reversal:

  • When children assume the role of translators or interperters, traditional parent-child dynamics can become blurred. Children may feel a sense of role reversal, where they are compelled to take on adult responsibilities, potentially undermining their sense of identity and autonomy.

Educational Interference:

  • Serving as translators or interpreters can interfere with children’s education and personal development. Time spent translating detracts from opportunities for children to focus on their academic studies, and age appropriate activities and experiences, extracurricular activities, and social interactions critical for their growth and well-being.

Confidentiality and Privacy:

  • Children may inadvertently become privy to private or sensitive information shared between their parents and third parties during translation sessions, compromising their sense of privacy and security within the family unit.

Inaccuracy and Miscommunication:

  • Children may lack the language proficiency and cultural understanding necessary to accurately convey the intended message. Misinterpretations or mistranslations can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and potentially harmful consequences.

Impacts on Family Dynamics:

  • Relying on children as translators or interpreters can disrupt the natural flow of communication within the family. It may discourage parents from actively seeking language support or accessing professional translation services, ultimately hindering their integration and autonomy.

In conclusion, while children may possess language skills that make them convenient intermediaries for their immigrant parents, it is essential to recognize the limitations and potential consequences of this role. 

Instead of burdening children with translation and interpretation duties, immigrant families should prioritize accessing professional translation services, language classes, and community resources to facilitate effective communication and support the holistic development of their children.


By doing so, families can nurture healthy family dynamics, preserve children’s emotional well-being, and foster a supportive environment conducive to cultural integration and mutual understanding.


This campaign in the Netherlands in 2021 sat one step towards the child protection with regards to their role in the immigration and integration process of families.

  • Are children translating for their immigrant parents in the country you are living?
  • What is your experience and/or opinion about this?

I invite you to also read the following articles about this topic:
How Translating for My Parents Affected Me
Teenage Translators…
Immigrant children as translators

And please watch this video:

Some cognitive, cultural and future benefits for multilinguals

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The German and English version of this post was published in a slightly different version as part of the 20-day #BilingualBlogathon organized by TA-DA! Language Productions. 

by Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD

 

Please find the English, German, Italian, French and Dutch version of this post here below

 

 

Some cognitive, cultural and future benefits for multilinguals

 

More than half of the world’s population speaks more than one language or dialect, but “the pervasive monolingual bias present within many societies threatens the wellbeing of bilingual children and their families” (Annick De Houwer, 2022).

Beyond simply knowing two or more languages and dialects (or sign languages), being multilingual offers a wide range of cognitive, cultural, and future benefits that make it a skill worth cultivating.

 

Cognitive Benefits:

Enhanced cognitive abilities
Studies have shown that multilingual individuals tend to have enhanced cognitive abilities, including better problem-solving skills, visual-spatial skills, multitasking abilities, and improved memory. This cognitive flexibility is attributed to the constant need and ability of multilinguals to switch between languages, and think in different linguistic structures.

Delayed onset of cognitive decline

The use of several languages has also been linked to a delayed onset of cognitive decline and a lower risk of age-related disorders like Alzheimer’s disease. The constant mental exercise required to maintain several languages across the lifespan is helps to keep the brain more resilient.

Improved attention control

Individuals who use several languages on a regular basis are proven to be better at filtering out irrelevant information and focusing on what’s important due to their ability to switch between languages. This skill is particularly useful in tasks that require sustained attention.

 

Cultural Benefits:

Intercultural understanding

Knowing two or more languages often goes hand-in-hand with gaining a deeper understanding of the associated cultures. Multilingual individuals are more likely to appreciate and embrace different customs, traditions, and perspectives, fostering cross-cultural empathy and understanding.

Access to diverse literature and media

“The more languages we know, the more worlds we can explore”

(Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD)

Through our multiple languages we can access a broader world of literature, music, films, and other forms of media. We can explore the multiple facets of the different cultures, which enriches our life and broadens our worldview.

Improved communication

Each language comes with her own verbal and non-verbal communication style. The more languages we know, the greater our advantage when it comes to communicating with people from different backgrounds. Being able to “read the room” (or “the air”) is an invaluable skill in today’s interconnected society and can lead to enhanced personal and professional opportunities.

 

Future Benefits:

Education opportunities

Knowing multiple languages can open doors to educational opportunities abroad. Many universities offer programs in multiple languages, and scholarships and exchange programs often favour multilingual candidates.

Career advancement

Knowing several languages is a highly sought-after skill in many industries. Companies value employees who can communicate with international clients and colleagues, navigate global markets, and bridge cultural gaps. The more languages we know, the bigger our competitive edge in the job market.

Global citizenship

The more languages we know, the more likely we feel that we belong to diverse groups. Our languages can serve as bridge to other peoples and cultures, and are like a gateway to a global citizenship as they enable us to participate actively in international discussions, engage in diplomacy, and contribute to global problem-solving efforts.

 

Being and staying (!) multilingual across the lifespan is a lifelong project that is not just about mastering different languages, but also about expanding our horizon and seizing countless opportunities. By fostering multiple languages we enhance our cognitive abilities, foster our cultural understanding, and positions us for success in an increasingly interconnected world.

 

Einige kognitive, kulturelle und zukünftige Vorteile für Mehrsprachige

 

Mehr als die Hälfte der Weltbevölkerung spricht mehr als eine Sprache oder mehr als einen Dialekt, aber “die allgegenwärtige einsprachige Voreingenommenheit in vielen Gesellschaften, gefährdet das Wohlergehen zweisprachiger Kinder und ihrer Familien” (Annick De Houwer, 2022).

Über die bloße Kenntnis von zwei oder mehr Sprachen und/oder Dialekten (oder Gebärdensprachen) hinaus, bietet die Zweisprachigkeit* eine Vielzahl kognitiver, kultureller und zukünftiger Vorteile, die sie zu einer wichtigen Fähigkeit macht, die es zu kultivieren lohnt.

 

Kognitive Vorteile:

Bessere kognitive Fähigkeiten

Studien haben gezeigt, dass zweisprachige Personen tendenziell über bessere kognitive Fähigkeiten verfügen. Sie sind besser im Problemlösen, ihre visuell-räumlichen Fähigkeiten sind ausgeprägter, sie sind besser im Multitasking und haben ein besseres Gedächtnis.

Diese kognitive Flexibilität wird auf das ständige Bedürfnis und die Fähigkeit von Zweisprachigen zurückgeführt, zwischen zwei oder mehr Sprachen hin- und her zu wechseln, und in unterschiedlichen Sprachstrukturen zu denken.

Verzögerter Beginn des kognitiven Verfalls

Das Benutzen mehrerer Sprachen wird auch mit einem verzögerten Einsetzen des kognitiven Verfalls und einem geringeren Risiko für altersbedingte Erkrankungen wie Alzheimer in Verbindung gebracht.
Die ständige geistige Anstrengung, die erforderlich ist, um ein Leben lang den Gebrauch mehrerer Sprachen aufrecht zu erhalten, trägt dazu bei, das Gehirn widerstandsfähiger zu machen.

Verbesserte Aufmerksamkeitskontrolle

Personen, die regelmäßig mehrere Sprachen verwenden, sind aufgrund ihrer Fähigkeit, zwischen Sprachen zu wechseln, nachweislich besser darin, irrelevante Informationen herauszufiltern und sich auf das Wesentliche zu konzentrieren.
Diese Fähigkeit ist besonders nützlich bei Aufgaben, die anhaltende Aufmerksamkeit erfordern.

 

Kulturelle Vorteile:

Interkulturelles Verständnis

Die Kenntnis zwei oder mehrerer Sprachen geht oft mit einem tieferen Verständnis der zugehörigen Kulturen einher.
Zweisprachige Menschen schätzen und akzeptieren eher unterschiedliche Bräuche, Traditionen und Perspektiven und fördern so interkulturelles Einfühlungsvermögen und Verständnis.

Zugang zu vielfältiger Literatur und Medien

“Je mehr Sprachen wir kennen, desto mehr Welten können wir erkunden” (Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD)

Durch unsere vielfältigen Sprachen haben wir Zugang zu einer größeren Welt der Literatur, Musik, Filme und anderen Medienformen.
Wir können die vielfältigen Facetten der unterschiedlichen Kulturen erkunden, was unser Leben bereichert und unsere Weltanschauung erweitert.

Verbesserte Kommunikation

Jede Sprache hat ihren eigenen verbalen und nonverbalen Kommunikationsstil.

Je mehr Sprachen wir beherrschen, desto größer ist unser Vorteil bei der Kommunikation mit Menschen unterschiedlicher Herkunft.
Die Fähigkeit, “den Raum” (oder “die Luft”) zu lesen, ist in der heutigen vernetzten Gesellschaft eine wertvolle Fähigkeit, und kann zu besseren persönlichen und beruflichen Chancen führen.

 

Zukünftige Vorteile:

Bildungschancen

Die Kenntnis mehrerer Sprachen kann Türen zu Bildungschancen im Ausland öffnen. Viele Universitäten bieten Programme in mehreren Sprachen an. Stipendien und Austauschprogramme begünstigen ausserdem häufig zweisprachige Kandidaten.

Karriereförderung

Die Beherrschung mehrerer Sprachen ist in vielen Branchen eine sehr gefragte Fähigkeit.
Unternehmen schätzen Mitarbeiter:innen, die mit internationalen Kund:innen und Kolleg:innen kommunizieren, sich auf globalen Märkten zurechtfinden, und kulturelle Lücken schließen können.
Je mehr Sprachen wir beherrschen, desto größer ist unser Wettbewerbsvorteil auf dem Arbeitsmarkt.

Weltbürgerschaft

Je mehr Sprachen wir beherrschen, desto größer die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass wir uns unterschiedlichen Gruppen zugehörig fühlen. Unsere Sprachen können als Brücke zu anderen Völkern und Kulturen dienen. Sie sind wie ein Tor zur Weltbürgerschaft, da sie es uns ermöglichen, aktiv an internationalen Diskussionen teilzunehmen, uns in Diplomatie zu üben, und zu globalen Problemlösungen beizutragen.

 

Mehrsprachig zu sein und zu bleiben (!) ist ein lebenslanges Projekt, bei dem es nicht nur darum geht, verschiedene Sprachen zu beherrschen, sondern auch darum, den Horizont zu erweitern und unzählige Chancen zu nutzen. Durch die Förderung mehrerer Sprachen verbessern wir unsere kognitiven Fähigkeiten, fördern unser kulturelles Verständnis und positionieren uns erfolgsversprechend in einer zunehmend vernetzten Welt.

 

I benefici cognitivi, culturali e futuri per multilingui

 

Più della metà della popolazione mondiale parla più di una lingua o dialetto, ma “il pervasivo pregiudizio monolingue presente in molte società minaccia il benessere dei bambini bilingui e delle loro famiglie” (Annick De Houwer, 2022).

Oltre a conoscere semplicemente più lingue e dialetti (o lingue dei segni), essere multilingue offre un’ampia gamma di benefici cognitivi, culturali e futuri che la rendono un’abilità che vale la pena coltivare.

 

Benefici cognitivi:

Migliori capacità cognitive

Gli studi hanno dimostrato che gli individui multilingui tendono ad avere migliori capacità cognitive, comprese migliori capacità di risoluzione dei problemi, abilità visuo-spaziali, capacità di multitasking e memoria migliorata. Questa flessibilità cognitiva è attribuita al costante bisogno e alla capacità dei multilingui di passare da una lingua all’altra e di pensare in strutture linguistiche diverse. 

Ritardato declino cognitivo

L’uso di diverse lingue è stato inoltre collegato ad un ritardo nell’insorgenza del declino cognitivo e a un minor rischio di disturbi legati all’età come il morbo di Alzheimer. Il costante esercizio mentale necessario per mantenere diverse lingue nel corso della vita aiuta a mantenere il cervello più resiliente. 

Miglioramento del controllo dell’attenzione

È dimostrato che coloro che utilizzano diverse lingue regolarmente sono più bravi a filtrare le informazioni irrilevanti e a concentrarsi su ciò che è importante grazie alla loro capacità di passare da una lingua all’altra. Questa abilità è particolarmente utile nei compiti che richiedono un’attenzione prolungata. 

 

Benefici culturali:

Comprensione interculturale

Conoscere più lingue spesso va di pari passo con l’acquisizione di una comprensione più profonda delle culture associate. Gli individui multilingui hanno maggiori probabilità di apprezzare e abbracciare costumi, tradizioni e prospettive diverse, favorendo l’empatia e la comprensione interculturale.

Accesso a letteratura e media diversi

“Più lingue conosciamo, più mondi possiamo esplorare”(Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD)

Attraverso le nostre molteplici lingue possiamo accedere a un mondo più ampio di letteratura, musica, film e altre forme di media. Possiamo esplorare le molteplici sfaccettature delle diverse culture, il che arricchisce la nostra vita e la nostra visione del mondo.

Comunicazione migliorata

Ogni lingua ha il proprio stile di comunicazione verbale e non verbale. Più lingue conosciamo, maggiore sarà il nostro vantaggio quando si tratta di comunicare con persone di diversa estrazione. Essere in grado di “leggere la stanza” (o “l’aria”) è un’abilità inestimabile nella società interconnessa di oggi e può portare a maggiori opportunità personali e professionali. 

 

Vantaggi futuri:

Opportunità di istruzione

Conoscere più lingue può aprire le porte a opportunità educative all’estero. Molte università offrono programmi in più lingue e borse di studio e programmi di scambio spesso favoriscono i candidati multilingui. 

Avanzamento di carriera

Conoscere più lingue è una competenza molto ricercata in molti settori. Le aziende apprezzano i dipendenti che possono comunicare con clienti e colleghi internazionali, navigare nei mercati globali e colmare le lacune culturali. Più lingue conosciamo, maggiore sarà il nostro vantaggio competitivo nel mercato del lavoro.

Cittadinanza globale

Più lingue conosciamo, più è probabile che sentiamo di appartenere a gruppi diversi. Le nostre lingue possono fungere da ponte verso altri popoli e culture e sono come una porta verso una cittadinanza globale poiché ci consentono di partecipare attivamente alle discussioni internazionali, impegnarci nella diplomazia e contribuire agli sforzi globali di risoluzione dei problemi.  

 

Essere e rimanere (!) multilingui per tutta la vita è un progetto permanente che non consiste solo nel padroneggiare lingue diverse, ma anche nell’ampliare i nostri orizzonti e nel cogliere innumerevoli opportunità. Promuovendo più lingue miglioriamo le nostre capacità cognitive, favoriamo la nostra comprensione culturale e ci posizioniamo per il successo in un mondo sempre più interconnesso.

 

Les bénéfices cognitifs, culturels et futures pour les multilingues

 

Plus de la moitié de la population mondiale parle plus d’une langue ou dialecte, mais “le préjugé monolingue omniprésent dans de nombreuses sociétés menace le bien-être des enfants bilingues et de leurs familles”
(Annick De Houwer, 2022).

Au-delà de la simple connaissance de plusieurs langues et dialectes (ou langues des signes), le fait d’être multilingue offre un large éventail d’avantages cognitifs, culturels et futurs qui en font une compétence qui mérite d’être cultivée.

 

 

Bénéfices cognitifs:

Capacités cognitives améliorées

Des études ont montré que les individus multilingues ont tendance à avoir des capacités cognitives améliorées, notamment de meilleures compétences en résolution de problèmes, des compétences visuo-spatiales, des capacités multitâches et une mémoire améliorée. Cette flexibilité cognitive est attribuée au besoin constant et à la capacité des multilingues de basculer entre les langues et de penser selon différentes structures linguistiques.

Déclin cognitif retardé

L’utilisation de plusieurs langues a également été associée à un début retardé du déclin cognitif et à un risque moindre de troubles liés à l’âge comme la maladie d’Alzheimer. L’exercice mental constant nécessaire pour maintenir plusieurs langues tout au long de la vie contribue à maintenir le cerveau plus résilient.

Contrôle de l’attention amélioré

Il a été prouvé que les personnes qui utilisent régulièrement plusieurs langues sont plus à même de filtrer les informations non pertinentes et de se concentrer sur ce qui est important grâce à leur capacité à passer d’une langue à l’autre. Cette compétence est particulièrement utile dans les tâches qui nécessitent une attention soutenue.

Bénéfices culturels:

Compréhension interculturelle

La connaissance de plusieurs langues va souvent de pair avec une compréhension plus approfondie des cultures associées. Les personnes multilingues sont plus susceptibles d’apprécier et d’adopter différentes coutûmes, traditions et perspectives, favorisant ainsi l’empathie et la compréhension interculturelles.

Accès à une littérature et des médias diversifiés

“Plus nous connaissons de langues, plus nous pouvons explorer de mondes” (Ph.D. Ute Limacher-Riebold)

Grâce à nos multiples langues, nous pouvons accéder à un monde plus vaste de littérature, de musique, de films et d’autres formes de médias. Nous pouvons explorer les multiples facettes des différentes cultures, ce qui enrichit notre vie et amplifie notre vision du monde.

Communication améliorée

Chaque langue a son propre style de communication verbale et non verbale. Plus nous connaissons de langues, plus nous sommes en mesure de communiquer avec des personnes d’horizons différents. Être capable de « lire l’air » est une compétence inestimable dans la société interconnectée d’aujourd’hui et peut conduire à de meilleures opportunités personnelles et professionnelles.

Avantages futurs :

Possibilités d’éducation

Connaître plusieurs langues peut ouvrir les portes à des opportunités d’études à l’étranger. De nombreuses universités proposent des programmes dans plusieurs langues, et les bourses et programmes d’échange favorisent souvent les candidats multilingues.

L’avancement de carrière

Connaître plusieurs langues est une compétence très recherchée dans de nombreux secteurs. Les entreprises apprécient les employés capables de communiquer avec des clients et des collègues internationaux, de naviguer sur les marchés mondiaux et de combler les écarts culturels. Plus nous connaissons de langues, plus notre avantage concurrentiel sur le marché du travail est grand.

Citoyenneté mondiale Plus nous connaissons de langues, plus nous avons le sentiment d’appartenir à des groupes divers. Nos langues peuvent servir de pont vers d’autres peuples et cultures et sont comme un pont vers une citoyenneté mondiale car elles nous permettent de participer activement aux discussions internationales, de nous engager dans la diplomatie et de contribuer aux efforts de résolution de problèmes mondiaux.

Être et rester (!) multilingue tout au long de la vie est un projet de toute une vie qui ne consiste pas seulement à maîtriser différentes langues, mais aussi à élargir notre horizon et à saisir d’innombrables opportunités. En favorisant plusieurs langues, nous améliorons nos capacités cognitives, nous favorisons notre compréhension culturelle et nous nous positionnons pour réussir dans un monde de plus en plus interconnecté.

 

Cognitieve, culturele en toekomstige voordelen voor meertaligen

Meer dan de helft van de wereldbevolking spreekt meer dan één taal of dialect, maar “de alomtegenwoordige eentalige vooroordelen die in veel samenlevingen aanwezig zijn, bedreigen het welzijn van tweetalige kinderen en hun gezinnen” (Annick De Houwer, 2022).

Naast het simpelweg kennen van meer talen en dialecten (of gebarentalen), biedt meertaligheid een breed scala aan cognitieve, culturele voordelen, maar ook voordelen voor de toekomst. Dit maakt meertaligheid een voordeel wat het de moeite waard is om te cultiveren.

 

Cognitieve voordelen:

Verbeterde cognitieve vaardigheden

Studies hebben aangetoond dat meertalige individuen over het algemeen betere cognitieve vaardigheden hebben, waaronder betere probleemoplossende vaardigheden, visueel-ruimtelijke vaardigheden, multitasking-vaardigheden en een beter geheugen. Deze cognitieve flexibiliteit wordt toegeschreven aan de constante behoefte en het vermogen van meertaligen om tussen talen te schakelen en in verschillende taalstructuren te denken.

Vertraagd begin van cognitieve achteruitgang

Het gebruik van verschillende talen is ook in verband gebracht met een vertraagd begin van cognitieve achteruitgang en een lager risico op leeftijdsgebonden aandoeningen zoals de ziekte van Alzheimer. De constante mentale oefening die nodig is om gedurende het hele leven verschillende talen te onderhouden, helpt de hersenen veerkrachtiger te houden.

 

Verbeterde aandachtscontrole

Het is bewezen dat personen die regelmatig meerdere talen gebruiken, beter zijn in het filteren van irrelevante informatie en zich beter kunnen concentreren op wat belangrijk is, dankzij hun vermogen om tussen talen te schakelen. Deze vaardigheid is vooral nuttig bij taken die langdurige aandacht vereisen.

Culturele voordelen:

Intercultureel begrip

Het kennen van twee of meer talen gaat vaak hand in hand met het verkrijgen van een dieper inzicht in de bijbehorende culturen. Tweetalige personen zullen eerder verschillende gewoonten, tradities en perspectieven waarderen en omarmen, waardoor interculturele empathie en begrip worden bevorderd.

 

Toegang tot diverse literatuur en media

“Hoe meer talen we kennen, hoe meer werelden we kunnen verkennen” (Ute Limacher-Riebold PhD)

Via onze meerdere talen hebben we toegang tot een bredere wereld van literatuur, muziek, films en andere vormen van media. We kunnen de vele facetten van de verschillende culturen verkennen, wat ons leven verrijkt en ons wereldbeeld verbreedt.

Verbeterde communicatie

Elke taal heeft haar eigen verbale en non-verbale communicatiestijl. Hoe meer talen we kennen, hoe groter ons voordeel als het gaat om de communicatie met mensen met verschillende achtergronden. In staat zijn om “de kamer” (of “de lucht”) te kunnen lezen is een vaardigheid van onschatbare waarde in de hedendaagse onderling verbonden samenleving en kan leiden tot verbeterde persoonlijke en professionele kansen.

Toekomstige voordelen:

Onderwijsmogelijkheden

Het kennen van meerdere talen kan deuren openen naar onderwijsmogelijkheden in het buitenland. Veel universiteiten bieden programma’s in meerdere talen aan, en ook beurzen en uitwisselingsprogramma’s geven vaak de voorkeur aan tweetalige kandidaten.

Loopbaanontwikkeling

Het kennen van meerdere talen is in veel sectoren een zeer gewilde vaardigheid. Bedrijven waarderen werknemers die kunnen communiceren met internationale klanten en collega’s, over mondiale markten kunnen navigeren en culturele verschillen kunnen overbruggen. Hoe meer talen we kennen, hoe groter ons concurrentievoordeel op de arbeidsmarkt.

Wereldburgerschap

Hoe meer talen we kennen, hoe groter de kans dat we het gevoel hebben dat we tot diverse groepen behoren. Onze talen kunnen als brug dienen naar andere volkeren en culturen, en zijn als een toegangspoort tot mondiaal burgerschap, omdat ze ons in staat stellen actief deel te nemen aan internationale discussies, deel te nemen aan diplomatie en bij te dragen aan inspanningen voor het oplossen van mondiale problemen.

Meertalig zijn en blijven (!) gedurende het hele leven is een levenslang project dat niet alleen gaat over het beheersen van verschillende talen, maar ook over het verbreden van onze horizon en het grijpen van talloze kansen. Door het bevorderen van meerdere talen verbeteren we onze cognitieve vaardigheden. We bevorderen ons cultureel begrip en positioneren ons voor succes in een steeds meer onderling verbonden wereld.

Ressources on this topic:

De Houwer, Annick, 2022, The danger of bilingual-monolingual comparisons in applied psycholinguistic research, in Applied Psycholinguistics 44 (3): 1-15.

Grosjean, François, 2010 Myths about bilingualism,  accessed 13 September 2023, <https://www.francoisgrosjean.ch/myths_en.html>; from Bilingual: Life and Reality (Harvard University Press, 2010).

 

cognitive advantages

Bialystok E, Craik FI, Luk G. Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2012;16(4):240–250.

Cook Vivian, Li Wei. The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multicompetence, CUP, 2016.

Luk G, Bialystok E, Craik FI, Grady CL. Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience. 2011;31(46):16808–16813.

Thierry G, Wu YJ. Brain potentials reveal unconscious translation during foreign-language comprehension. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2007;104(30):12530–12535.

Viorica, Marian, Shook, Anthony, The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual, Cerebrum, 2012 Sep-Oct: 13.

cultural advantages

Yinjie Chen, Amado M.Padilla, Role of Bilingualism and Biculturalism as Assets in Positive Psychology: Conceptual Dynamic GEAR Model, Front Psychol. 2019, 10, 2122.

Beacco Jean-Claude, Specifying languages’ contribution to intercultural education. Lessons learned from the CEFR, 2013.

future advantages

OECD – How Language Learning Opens Doors, accessed 13 September 2023, < https://www.oecd.org/pisa/foreign-language/opens-doors.pdf>

COE – Language Policies, accessed 13 September 2023, <https://www.coe.int/fi/web/commissioner/-/language-policies-should-accomodate-diversity-protect-minority-rights-and-defuse-tensions>

Challenges in Multilingualism – Navigating Language Dynamics in Multilingual Families

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Being or becoming multilingual has numerous advantages, but it also comes with its fair share of challenges.

Understanding and addressing these challenges is essential for successful language development and maintenance in multilingual families.

Let's look at some common challenges that arise in multilingual families and discuss strategies to overcome them.

 

Language Dominance

When one language becomes stronger or more dominant than the other(s), we have to do with language dominance. One (or more) language(s) become more dominant when language exposure, schooling, or societal influences are supporting the target language(s) more than the others.

To address this, parents can provide a more balanced language input, i.e. make sure that there is enough exposure to the target languages in terms of qualitative high verbal interactions. Furthermore, they can encourage language use in various contexts, and seek support from language professionals if needed.

 

Code-Mixing and Code-Switching

Code-mixing and code-switching, where individuals switch between languages within a sentence of within a conversation, is very normal among multilinguals and usually nothing to worry about. But while this is a natural phenomenon, it can be a challenge when we struggle with having conversations in one language only. In fact, when we notice that our children can not hold a conversation in the target, i.e. the expected language in contexts where a monolingual language use is necessary, we may want to reinforce some language separation strategies, such as setting language rules for specific contexts. These strategies have proven to be very effective not only with children but also for multilingual adults!

 

Language Loss and Attrition

Language loss or attrition can occur when a language is not actively used or maintained. This language shift usually occurs gradually. It can become a concern when multilingual children are not exposed to the target languages consistently over a longer period of time.
To prevent language attrition and language loss, it is important to create and maintain (!) opportunities for language practice. Engaging with as many people as possible in the target language, fostering a great variety of language input – from speakers with a various interests and language use (formal, informal etc.) and of course also keeping the contact with extended family members who speak the language can help keep children motivated to use the language. If where we live we don't have enough speakers of the target languages, we can use all kind of audio and video resources to keep the language as varied and interesting as possible!

In our Toolbox for Multilingual Families we share activities and games that foster understanding, speaking, reading and writing.

 

Limited Language Resources

As mentioned above, access to resources in all languages spoken within the family can be limited, especially for less commonly spoken languages or languages that are not transmitted in written form (like dialects for example). However, leveraging online resources, local community networks, language exchange programs, and cultural organizations can help overcome this challenge and provide opportunities for language exposure and learning. – Make sure to join my facebook group Multilingual Families where you might find the "multilingual village" you need!

 

Maintaining Language Motivation

As children grow older, they may question the relevance or importance of maintaining multiple languages. Especially those they don't need with their peers or to function in social settings on a daily basis. It is crucial to foster a positive attitude towards multilingualism in general, and to highlight the advantages of having language skills in multiple languages.
In my online course for parents of 10-15+ year old children* I focus on fostering this awareness in our preteens and teens with regards to communication, cognitive development, cultural understanding, and future opportunities.

Celebrating cultural heritage and promoting meaningful language use can enhance the motivation of our chidren (and us!) to keep using the language**.

 

Social and Peer Pressure

As soon as children attend daycare or school, and participate in society, they are more prone to face social pressure or ridicule for speaking multiple languages or just "other" languages. Depending on where they grow up, the community will be more or less accepting towards other languages and cultures. In more monolingual settings, using other languages and coming from a more diverse cultural background can cause all kind of reactions.
As parents and caregivers, we can help our children cope with those situations by building their confidence and resilience of being "not only... but also...". educating others about the benefits of multilingualism, and fostering a supportive social network can help counteract this challenge.

 

Balancing Language and Academic Demands

Although more and more schools support multilingual children, i.e. their use of multiple languages, there are still some challenges our children can face. These challenges have to do with balancing language learning with academic demands. Especially when the language and overall academic expectations are not met, or not met at the expected moment, teachers and parents tend to blame the multiple languages. It has been proven that in the majority of cases academic struggles have nothing to do with the number of languages a child is exposed to. It is usually an imbalance in support for the target languages and the skills related to language learning and subject learning that cause a problem.
Whenever we observe an imbalance that lasts longer than a few months, and exceed the usual transition period (when our children changed school and maybe even school language etc.), we should work closely with educators to create a supportive environment that values and integrates multilingualism into the academic curriculum. In my over 30 years of experience with working in international settings I observed that the problem usually stems from the environment the child is exposed to, not the child. Therefore I always invite parents to find ways to create an environment where their children's needs are met and where they can develop in the most healthy way.

 

Conclusion

I am a defender of multilingualism as I know about the advantages about knowing multiple languages. I have acquired and learned more than 10 languages and dialects, and 5 of them to a high level of proficiency (in understanding, speaking, reading and writing). But like everything else in life, knowing multiple languages also comes with challenges. But these challenges can be overcome with awareness, proactive strategies, and support.
Embracing linguistic diversity, providing a balanced and hight quality of language exposure, fostering a positive language environment, and seeking professional guidance when needed, are essential for successful language development and maintenance in multilingual families and I'd say "across the lifespan".

By acknowledging and addressing these challenges, we can create a nurturing environment that allows multilingual individuals to thrive and embrace the richness of multiple languages and cultures.

 

If you are multilingual and raising multilinguals, please let me know in the comments what kind of challenges you faced or are currently facing with regards to using or fostering and learning multiple languages.

 

*The online course for parents of 10-15+ year old multilinguals will be available in fall 2024. If you want me to keep you informed for when the course will be ready, please leave a comment here below. No strings attached.
** I am preparing a course about Motivation for multilingual families. If you want me to keep you informed for when the course will be ready, please leave a comment here below. No strings attached.

 

Can a country be too language friendly?

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Guest post by Artemis Pepelasi
We recently learned about the unique language situation in Iceland. This lovely country of the North could make the first place as the most language-friendly country.

The situation in Iceland

Icelandic society is very welcoming towards immigrants. The government helps newcomers, providing translators and mediators to them in order to smoothly adapt to the new reality. English is widespread in the country and used as the primary means of communication between newcomers and locals.
The Icelandic government follows the fundamental right to education: all children attend everyday school from early on once they live in a neighbourhood. Within the school premises, children are encouraged to use their first language(s) in order to feel comfortable and welcomed.
Regardless of the community and schools' attempts to help newcomers, Iceland faces a great issue. And that is a potential risk for the Icelandic language. Statistics have shown that many immigrant pupils still need to obtain their age-appropriate language skills in Icelandic, according to PISA [OECD, 2019 ], which leads them not to access higher education. In addition, many immigrant adults still need to learn the Icelandic language, and as a matter of fact, the language is used less and less in everyday life also by locals. 
© Ute's International Lounge, 2023

 

What we observed 

We had the opportunity to discuss the aforementioned situation with professionals from Iceland. We noticed various aspects which need further exploration. As a start, the government provides access to translators (face-to-face or via phone) to the newcomers. This policy proves the government's intention to foster an inclusive society and seems an ideal practice for newcomers.
However, that help is provided unconditionally and without any time limit, which creates a potential risk: If constant help is given for language translation, people will not see the need to learn the local language. Knowing that help will be provided regardless of the circumstances, they are not motivated to learn the language. Furthermore, they get the impression that learning Icelandic is a very hard and meaningless process. 
This attitude towards the language also might lead to less motivation for children to learn Icelandic. Parents seem to have low expectations regarding academic skills and success, which could lead children to have less motivation for school too—a vicious circle.
As for the children, by not being encouraged to learn the local language at home or in society, the school needs to support them in the language learning direction. However, teachers are concerned about students' transition to the new situation at school, so they provide constant help. As we got informed, teachers sometimes learn their pupils' languages and use them to give instructions. Furthermore, teachers also encourage interaction in English, as that is the international language which is available to everyone. So teachers' actions at school, accompanied by low parental motivation towards language skills, can negatively influence pupils' academic progress. This all seems to lead to under-education and causes pupils to be unable to attend the local higher education. 
Shifting the focus to society, another issue arises. The citizens born and raised in the county might feel that the situation threatens their heritage language. The risk of language attrition is apparent, and so is the risk of cultural attrition. This fear and frustration could lead to discriminating behaviours towards newcomers, which is the exact opposite outcome the government intended in the first place.
Language attrition is a common situation when an individual unconscious change occurs within an adult or a society. It happens when people use the target language or lose their proficiency in a language due to the lack of contact with the language ("Language Attrition", 2022). Multilinguals switch languages according to environmental needs. This coexistence makes the languages interact and influence each other (Kupske, 2019). So within communities that use several languages in everyday social interaction, the language used less frequently tends to be suppressed. 
The beauty of our world is the existence of many different cultures. And all these different cultures (so different perspectives of life) are unique and make our world colourful. Iceland tries very hard to be welcoming (and many other countries should recognize that). However, Icelanders are worried about losing their unique cultural characteristics, with the first being the language, through the unconditional help they provide. But then, where is the balance point? 
  • Which is a healthy way for them to retain their characteristics and also keep welcoming all the people they would like to live in their country? 
  • How can we keep the rainbow bright when living abroad or open our countries to other people without sacrificing our language?  
Inclusion has the perspective of interaction. We interact with others, which might change how we think and act, but always with respect to what we know and the way we already behave in our everyday life.
Inclusive policies are very important for every country in order for everyone to live with dignity. However, we need to structure the policies in a way that all people are free to behave according to their unique cultural characteristics and simultaneously respect and not suppress the local cultures. 

© Ute's International Lounge, 2023

About the author:

Artemis Pepelasi lives in the Netherlands. She studied at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Philosophy, Pedagogics and Psychology.  She worked as a therapist for children with developmental disorders and decided this year to strengthen her knowledge and is attending the master program “Parenting and Child Development” in Leiden University. She is currently completing an internship at Ute’s International Lounge.

References 
Language Attrition. (2022). encyclopedia.pub. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37367
Kupske, F. F. (2019). The impact of language attrition on language teaching: the dynamics of linguistic knowledge retention and maintenance in multilingualism. Ilha Do Desterro: A Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies. https://doi.org/10.5007/2175-8026.2019v72n3p311

How to maintain our languages whilst living abroad

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Living abroad is a great opportunity to learn and immerse ourselves in a new culture and language! For those who do this for a few years, this can be a refreshing and inspiring experience. It allows them to discover new facets of their own culture and language.

When we live abroad for a longer period and the local language is not one we use(d) at home or regularly before moving there, it can become challenging to learn new languages whilst maintaining our proficiency in all our “other” languages, i.e. those we acquired and learned before. Many of us experience some kind of language attrition at some point. This can be a frustrating and scary experience!

I grew up with several languages and added more throughout the years (and am still learning new ones). At times, one or two of my languages would shift into the background, while I was focusing on the new language; this is very normal when we need to get proficient as quickly as possible in a new language. But there always comes the time where I feel the need to dust off the languages I used more frequently before and it is not always easy to do so. Certainly not if there are not many users of the language where I currently live.

Here are some tips on how to maintain all (!) our languages whilst living abroad:

Speak your languages with a variety of speakers! We can learn from everyone who speaks the target language. No matter their level of proficiency! The broader and diverse the community of speakers in terms of language use and proficiency, the better.
I didn’t always find like-minded people who would use the target language in the places I live(d), but we can find people in social media groups or local organizations (eg. Internations, Meet Up) to share a common interest with or, if we want, to improve our language skills a bit everywhere in the world.

Speaking our languages with people who use them in different social settings – formal and informal, colloquial, slang etc. – and talk about various topics, helps us improve and consolidate our vocabulary and metalinguistic skills. Furthermore, speaking with people of various age groups and provenience allow us to develop our vocabulary and overall language skills.

 

Reading books, newspapers, magazines, comics etc. in our languages will help us keep up with news and literature from the country (or countries). Reading helps us to maintain our language skills, learn new terms in context and makes it easier to keep connected to the culture and current events. As storylines can differ considerably across languages, through books we can deep-dive into the way thoughts are expressed in the target language and metaphorically take a “language bath” in them. Audiobooks and podcasts are a great resource too! 

 

Watching TV shows movies in our languages help us maintain our language skills and keep us up to date with popular culture. It will help us understand cultural references, metaphors that are used in everyday conversations, and we might be able to understand “insider” jokes in the target languages. And most importantly, the visual aspect allows us to strengthen our non-verbal communication skills in the language, i.e. gestures, body-language and “reading the air”.

 

Practicing regularly seems easy, but it’s not. Setting aside time each day to practice our language skills is not something we think needs any planning. But after a while, when we realize that we use our language less and less, that we struggle with finding words, we should start taking this language attrition a bit more seriously. Practice includes speaking, writing, or listening exercises. If we choose topics we are interested in, that we find compelling, it will be much easier to be consistent! And if we can’t find an interlocutor, we can “listen to ourselves” by commenting on things out loud, express our thoughts out loud – I know, it sounds crazy, but when we listen to ourselves using the target language we get used to the sound, intonation and rhythm again, and we get confident (again) to use the language also with others.

 

Using language-learning apps and websites are not only for language learners! There are many language-learning apps and websites available that can help us practice and improve our skills also at higher levels. They can be a great supplement to other methods of language maintenance.

 

We can maintain our language skills whilst living abroad even for a longer period

I personally manage to maintain multiple languages. Although I don’t live in the respective countries since almost 20 years (I talk about this in some of the interviews), and I actually never lived in countries where some of my languages are the community language – English for example – the practices mentioned here above help me keep my level of fluency high.

Consistency and curiosity are key! I try to listen to and use my languages on a regular basis. During designated times per week where I immerse myself fully into a language:  I watch a show, listen to a podcast or a recorded article.

I made it a habit to read in any of my languages. Whether it is a news article or a novel, a scientific article or a poem, reading helps me foster at least my receptive vocabulary. The more I read a new term, and read it out loud, the higher the chance that I will use it when I speak.

 

I try to speak at least my 5 most dominant languages – English, German, Italian, French and Dutch – on a weekly basis. I not always get the chance to meet people speaking all of them, but I try to at least meet people online who share them with me. Writing in multiple languages per day is very efficient.

 

It is a natural process that some of my languages move to the background whilst others shift to the foreground every now and then. But whenever I notice that I struggle in one of my languages, I try to “nurture” it a bit more, until I feel more confident again.
In this video I share a model that allows us to visualize our language use:


I use some of my languages mainly for personal purposes, whereas others for professional ones.

  • How is it with your languages?
  • What languages would you like to foster more?
  • What strategies are effective for you to maintain your languages?

Please let me know in the comments.