Tag Archives: multilingual children

Multilingual Societies

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Multilingual societies are a testament to the vibrancy and complexity of human culture, where multiple languages coexist and evolve within a shared social framework. These societies are not simply collections of diverse linguistic groups but intricate networks of communication that weave together histories, cultural identities, and social dynamics. The interplay between various languages and dialects in multilingual communities creates rich tapestries that reflect the diverse experiences and traditions of their members.

Defining Multilingual Societies

A multilingual society is one in which multiple languages and dialects are actively used across different domains – be it in the home, at school, in the workplace, or in public life.

The coexistence of these languages is not only a matter of daily communication but also a reflection of the community’s diverse histories and the continuous interaction of various social, cultural, and political forces.

The ability to speak and navigate between multiple languages provides individuals in these societies with a deeper understanding of their own identities while promoting understanding and collaboration between different groups.

In such societies, the use of language can be fluid, shifting depending on the context, purpose, and the participants involved in the interaction. This dynamic nature of multilingualism is what makes multilingual societies particularly interesting – they are always in flux, adapting to changing social realities while preserving the unique cultural heritage of each language.

Key Characteristics of Multilingual Societies

1. Diglossia and the Role of Varieties

One of the defining characteristics of many multilingual societies is the phenomenon of diglossia, where two or more varieties of the same language coexist, each having a distinct role in society. This concept, first introduced by sociolinguist Charles Ferguson in the 1950s, is particularly evident in societies like those in the Arab world. For example, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is typically used in formal contexts, such as in the media, literature, and religious settings. On the other hand, local dialects, such as Egyptian Arabic, are used in everyday interactions and casual conversations. This distinction between high and low varieties of a language serves as a way to maintain both cultural and social order, allowing for functional diversity within the same linguistic system.

Diglossia exists not only in the Arabic-speaking world but also in many other multilingual societies. In Switzerland, for example, German, French, and Italian are spoken in distinct regions, and these languages are used in formal and governmental settings. Meanwhile, regional dialects play an important role in social interactions, demonstrating how different linguistic varieties have their place in different domains of life.

2. The Richness of Dialects

Another fascinating aspect of multilingual societies is the presence of dialects, which add depth and texture to the linguistic landscape. Dialects are variations of a language that are often regionally or socially distinct. While Standard Italian is the official language of Italy, it coexists with a variety of regional dialects, such as Neapolitan, Venetian, or Sicilian. These dialects are not simply colloquial forms of the language but have their own unique lexicons, grammar, and cultural histories.

The presence of dialects within a multilingual society enriches cultural identity by reflecting the historical and geographical diversity of the community. Dialects are more than just ways of speaking; they are repositories of local traditions, folklore, and ways of life. For example, a speaker of Venetian might use words and expressions that reflect the history of the region, its unique interactions with other cultures, and its role in maritime trade.

While there is often a tension between the prestige of a standard language and the value of dialects, multilingual societies offer the potential for dialects to be celebrated and preserved. In places like Italy, the revival of interest in regional dialects is part of a larger cultural movement to maintain connections with local traditions and histories, even as the country embraces globalization and modernity.

3. Code-Switching and Language Shifts

Individuals in multilingual societies often shift between languages or dialects depending on the context in which they are communicating. This code-switching is a common phenomenon in these societies, where speakers fluidly alternate between languages or varieties of language within a conversation.

India provides a rich example of code-switching in action. In many urban areas, it is not uncommon for individuals to mix Hindi and English within a single sentence, especially in workspaces or social settings. This practice – often referred to as Hinglish – reflects the intersection of India’s rich linguistic diversity with the global influence of English. In multilingual societies, code-switching serves as a pragmatic tool for communication, allowing speakers to express themselves more effectively by drawing from a wider range of linguistic resources.

Code-switching can also serve as a marker of social identity and group membership. In multilingual societies, speakers often shift between languages to signal their affiliation with a particular group, region, or social class. For instance, a person in Spain might alternate between Catalan and Spanish depending on whether they are speaking with family, friends, or colleagues. These language shifts are not just about communication but about positioning oneself within a social context, reinforcing shared experiences, and maintaining a sense of belonging.

4. The Cognitive Benefits of Multilingualism

Living in a multilingual society also has cognitive advantages. Research has shown that multilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced mental agility and adaptability. Exposure to different languages and dialects helps improve cognitive flexibility, as individuals constantly switch between different linguistic systems. This ability to switch between languages fosters better problem-solving skills, increased creativity, and an enhanced capacity for multitasking.

Moreover, multilingualism is linked to improved executive functions, such as working memory, attention control, and the ability to focus. In a multilingual society, individuals who are constantly interacting with different languages and linguistic varieties develop stronger mental skills that can be transferred to other areas of life, including academic achievement, professional success, and interpersonal relationships.

The Role of Multilingual Societies in Fostering Communication

Multilingual societies are more than just linguistic landscapes; they are spaces of cross-cultural exchange and communication. In such societies, languages serve as bridges that connect diverse communities, fostering collaboration, mutual understanding, and social cohesion. Through language, individuals from different linguistic backgrounds can share ideas, build relationships, and negotiate shared meanings.

The use of multiple languages in a society also supports the preservation of diverse traditions and histories.

Languages are not static: they evolve and adapt to the needs of the communities that use them. In multilingual societies, this linguistic dynamism allows for the ongoing revitalization of cultural practices, as speakers continue to innovate and adapt their languages to new social realities.

Challenges of Multilingual Societies

While multilingual societies offer a wealth of opportunities, they also present challenges. One of the most significant challenges is the unequal prestige of languages. In many multilingual societies, certain languages are seen as more prestigious or valuable than others. For example, in Switzerland, while German, French, and Italian enjoy official status, the Romansh language has been marginalized, despite being one of the country’s national languages. Similarly, in many post-colonial countries, the dominance of colonial languages like English or French can overshadow indigenous languages, leading to their gradual decline.

The challenge of linguistic inequality is further compounded by globalization and the increasing prominence of English as a global lingua franca. As English becomes the dominant language of business, science, and technology, languages that are considered less prestigious on a global scale are at risk of disappearing, especially in societies where language shift is already occurring.

Ensuring linguistic equity is therefore a key challenge for multilingual societies. Governments, educational systems, and social institutions must work together to promote the value of all languages, ensuring that minoritised languages are not left behind. This requires policies that actively promote the use of these languages in public life, education, and media, and that support the teaching of these languages alongside more widely spoken ones.

Conclusion: Embracing Linguistic Creativity and Resilience

Despite the challenges, multilingual societies are a living proof of linguistic creativity and resilience. When languages and dialects are celebrated and nurtured, they enrich the cultural and social fabric of a society, making it more inclusive, dynamic, and adaptable.

Multilingual societies are spaces of constant linguistic innovation, where languages evolve and adapt to the needs of the people who speak them.

As we look towards the future, it is important to remember that multilingualism is not a challenge to be overcome but a resource to be cherished. In a world that is increasingly interconnected, multilingual societies offer valuable lessons in how to live together in linguistic harmony while celebrating the diversity that makes us unique.

 

References

  • Fishman, J. A. (1967). Bilingualism with and Without Diglossia; Diglossia with and Without Bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 29-38.
  • Edwards, J. (2012). Multilingualism: Understanding Linguistic Diversity. Continuum.
  • Aronin, L., & Singleton, D. (2012). Multilingualism. Oxford University Press.

How to Read Bilingual Books: for Teenagers and Adults

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How to Read Bilingual Books: for Teenagers and Adults

Bilingual books offer a unique opportunity for language learners, both teenagers and adults, to enhance their language skills, gain deeper cultural insights, and maintain their heritage language while acquiring a new one.

However, reading bilingual books effectively requires more than just skimming through the text. It involves strategic approaches that maximize language acquisition and comprehension. With our youngest, early simultaneous multilinguals, we want to follow other strategies than with older children, and focus on one language per setting; I explain this more in detail in my post How to Read Bilingual Books with Babies and Toddlers .

Teenagers and adults can use bilingual books to learn an additional language independently:

Understand the Structure of Bilingual Books

Bilingual books typically present the text in two languages side by side, either on the same page or on facing pages. This format allows readers to compare the languages directly. For teenagers and adults, this can be particularly helpful as they can easily reference the translation when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary or complex structures. Understanding this format is essential as it helps in developing a routine that enhances comprehension and retention.

Tip: Start by reading a paragraph or a section in your stronger language to grasp the context. Then, read the same section in your target language to notice differences in expression, vocabulary, and syntax.

 

Engage with the Text Actively

Active reading is crucial when working with bilingual books. This involves not just reading the text but also engaging with it through annotation, summarization, and reflection. For instance, after reading a passage, try summarizing it in the target language. This reinforces comprehension and helps in internalizing new vocabulary and grammar structures.

Tip: Use a notebook to jot down unfamiliar words or phrases and their translations. This practice aids memory retention and provides a quick reference for future reading sessions.

Leverage Cultural Contexts

Bilingual books often include cultural references that are unique to each language. For example, a word or phrase in one language might carry cultural connotations that do not directly translate into another language. Paying attention to these nuances not only improves language proficiency but also deepens cultural understanding.

Tip: When you encounter a culturally specific term or concept, take the time to research its background. Understanding the cultural context enhances your appreciation of the text and provides a richer learning experience.

Set Clear Goals

Whether you are reading for fluency, vocabulary acquisition, or cultural understanding, setting clear goals can make your reading sessions more productive. For teenagers and adults, this could mean focusing on particular aspects of language, such as idiomatic expressions or specific grammar structures.

Tip: Before starting a new bilingual book, define what you want to achieve. For instance, you might decide to focus on mastering verb tenses or expanding your vocabulary related to a particular theme.

Use Complementary Resources

Bilingual books are most effective when supplemented with other language-learning resources. This could include dictionaries, language apps, or even discussion groups where you can practice and discuss what you’ve read. For teenagers and adults, engaging with language communities can provide additional support and motivation.

Tip: Consider joining a book club or online forum focused on bilingual books. Discussing the text with others can provide new insights and help you see the language from different perspectives.

Conclusion

Bilingual books are a powerful tool for independent language learning, especially for teenagers and adults who are skilled readers and already have a foundational understanding of both languages.

By understanding the structure of these books, engaging actively with the text, leveraging cultural contexts, setting clear goals, and using complementary resources, readers can significantly enhance their language proficiency and cultural awareness.

References:

  • Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters.
  • Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Multilingual Matters.
  • García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press.

This approach, integrating strategic reading techniques with cultural and linguistic insights, supports effective bi- and multilingualism and enriches the reader’s language learning journey.

Further readings:

How to Read Bilingual Books with Babies and Toddlers

How to Read Bilingual Books with Emergent Readers: A Guide for Simultaneous and Successive Bilinguals

I invite you to watch our video Reading Bilingual Books, or Not Reading Bilingual Books:

Children are NOT translators or interpreters!

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Children are NOT translators or interpreters!

The Complex Role of Children: Why They Aren’t Translators or Interpreters for Immigrant Parents

In many immigrant families, children often find themselves in the position of translators or interpreters for their parents, bridging the gap between their parents’ native language and the language of their new country.
While this may seem like a practical solution to communication barriers, the role of children as translators and interpreters can have profound implications on their development, family dynamics, and emotional well-being.

Children are not professional translators or interpreters, and expecting them to fulfill this role can place undue pressure and responsibility on their shoulders.

Here are several reasons why children should not be relied upon as translators for their immigrant parents:

Developmental Limitations:

  • Children may not have fully developed language skills, especially in complex or technical matters. Translating or interpreting nuanced concepts accurately requires a deep understanding of both languages, which children may not possess. 

Emotional Burden:

  • Acting as translators or interpreters can place immense emotional strain on children, who may feel burdened by the responsibility of conveying sensitive or difficult information between their parents and the outside world. They may also feel the weight of responsibility for accurately transmitting important messages.

Role Reversal:

  • When children assume the role of translators or interperters, traditional parent-child dynamics can become blurred. Children may feel a sense of role reversal, where they are compelled to take on adult responsibilities, potentially undermining their sense of identity and autonomy.

Educational Interference:

  • Serving as translators or interpreters can interfere with children’s education and personal development. Time spent translating detracts from opportunities for children to focus on their academic studies, and age appropriate activities and experiences, extracurricular activities, and social interactions critical for their growth and well-being.

Confidentiality and Privacy:

  • Children may inadvertently become privy to private or sensitive information shared between their parents and third parties during translation sessions, compromising their sense of privacy and security within the family unit.

Inaccuracy and Miscommunication:

  • Children may lack the language proficiency and cultural understanding necessary to accurately convey the intended message. Misinterpretations or mistranslations can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and potentially harmful consequences.

Impacts on Family Dynamics:

  • Relying on children as translators or interpreters can disrupt the natural flow of communication within the family. It may discourage parents from actively seeking language support or accessing professional translation services, ultimately hindering their integration and autonomy.

In conclusion, while children may possess language skills that make them convenient intermediaries for their immigrant parents, it is essential to recognize the limitations and potential consequences of this role. 

Instead of burdening children with translation and interpretation duties, immigrant families should prioritize accessing professional translation services, language classes, and community resources to facilitate effective communication and support the holistic development of their children.


By doing so, families can nurture healthy family dynamics, preserve children’s emotional well-being, and foster a supportive environment conducive to cultural integration and mutual understanding.


This campaign in the Netherlands in 2021 sat one step towards the child protection with regards to their role in the immigration and integration process of families.

  • Are children translating for their immigrant parents in the country you are living?
  • What is your experience and/or opinion about this?

I invite you to also read the following articles about this topic:
How Translating for My Parents Affected Me
Teenage Translators…
Immigrant children as translators

And please watch this video:

Learning to read in multiple languages – The Reading Rope explained

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There are many different approaches, theories and practices about how to start fostering reading skills, and they all differ across languages and cultures.

I personally find the Reading Rope by Hollis Scaraborough, a leading researcher of early language development and its connection to later literacy, very helpful to illustrate what learning to read and becoming a skilled reader entails.

Reading does not only mean to recognize letters or characters of our written language, and reading doesn’t come as naturally as understanding and speaking.

As the whole process is more complex, when our children grow up with multiple languages, and learn to read almost simultaneously in more than one language, the process is slightly different, which I’m illustrating here below.

 

When parents ask me when they should or could start teaching their children how to read in their home languages, I always ask them about their children’s attitude towards reading. When children are curious about learning to read they are ready. But ready to what? Parents need to understand what it means to teach reading. When children ask to learn to read, they might think about being able to decipher their name or some specific words, whereas we, parents, already see ourselves explaining complex grammar.

Therefore I usually tell them to have a look at the various skills that help our children become skilled readers illustrated by the Reading Rope, and decide which aspects of the learning process they feel comfortable supporting their children with.

 

© Hollis Scaraborough

 

Let’s start with the upper part, because it is the part that we foster in our daily life.

 

Language Comprehension

 

It is the part of the Language Comprehension strands that consist of:

  • Background Knowledge
  • Vocabulary Knowledge
  • Language Structures
  • Verbal Reasoning
  • Literacy Knowledge

 

Background Knowledge is what our children understand about the world, what they can relate to. Like that the apple is a fruit one can eat, that rain is water and it can be cold and warm, that there is day and night etc.

Background knowledge also includes everything related with the context of these words and terms, it involves the cultures, traditions, beliefs and values our children grow up with. If we speak several languages at home and transmit multiple cultures, way of saying and thinking, their background knowledge embraces all of them. 

 

Vocabulary Knowledge means not only words, but also their meaning and the variety of meanings they can have. A rich and various vocabulary is a prerequisite for our children to understand the written word, to make this connection between what they know and what they read. When our children grow up with several languages, it is important that they know the terms and concepts in their different languages in order to anchor them to the written word.

The languages our children are exposed to at school will become their most dominant ones, for obvious reasons and will make great progress in them within a relatively short time. This is what they need to do in order to function at school and succeed academically. For example, they will know what jellyfish are, they will know the story of the Gruffalo – if their school language is English – and the seasons of the year etc..

As the home language vocabulary will not expand as quickly and won’t possibly cover all the topics our children learn at school, they might not be able to understand texts in our home language to discover those terms and the “world” that would provide them with this vocabulary. They might learn how to decode the words on the paper or screen, but they might not understand it.

This is why I always advise parents to provide input about these topics at home too, especially if we want our children to also be able to understand and read texts in our home languages about these topics. 

 

Language Structures refers to the syntax, the way sentences are formed in the language. So, for example, in English I say “I like the dog”, in Grman “Ich mag den Hund”, “mi piace il cane” in Italian, following in all these languages the SVO structure. But when we add an adjective, we’ll say “ich mag den blauen Teppich”, and “I like the blue carpet” in German and English, but “mi piace il tappeto blu” in Italian, as the adjective follows the noun in Italian, whereas it precedes it in English and German. Language Structure also refers to the many meanings words and texts can have, the semantics, that a “group of fish” is called school, as well as the place our go to learn, and it refers to morphology, for example, that by adding -s to some words we form a plural in English. Our children who grow up with multiple languages from early on, learn to differentiate between the syntax structures of their languages by trial and error. They mix them at times, which is perfectly normal as it is an essential part of the learning process. It is a way to connect the different systems without having to relearn every language from scratch: they can build on what they already know! By reading to and with our children we expose them to a variety of different ways to say things, to different styles – formal, informal, direct speech, indirect speech etc. – which often compensates the lagging exposure to a variety of speakers of our language. This is one of the many reasons why reading with our children in our languages is even more important when we raise them abroad!  

 

Verbal Reasoning refers to understanding when and how words are used, when they are meant in a figurative and when they are meant in a literal way. Our children need to understand what is said, and what not, but implied, and how it is said. This can be fostered through conversations, speech, or through texts. They need to learn that there are multiple ways to express thoughts and meanings, and that we can imply, infer meanings, like if when they want to go outside to play and we say “it is going to rain” they need to understand that it’s good to wear a raincoat and maybe Wellington boots. Understanding metaphors, sayings, sarcasm or irony are also skills our children need to master. If we want our multilingual children to improve their language skills and become confident readers and writers in our languages, they need to make the experience of using these metaphors, sayings and ways to communicate. Verbal reasoning skills can be fostered also through story telling, role plays and enacting scenes. 

 

Literacy Knowledge refers to the different genres of texts: news, articles in newspapers, poems, riddles, fiction and non-fiction, dialogues, comics etc. The broader our children’s literacy knowledge, the better they can understand the texts, as each genre has its own rules with regards to the use of vocabulary, style etc.

 

The more our children learn about each of their language for all of the aspects just mentioned, the easier they will understand the texts in those languages. The language comprehension strands are strongly entangled. They feed and reinforce each other and form a complex unity that weave together with the word recognition strands.

 

 

Word Recognition

The Word Recognition strands are part of the pre- and early literacy skills our children can acquire – or the first steps one can take when learning a new language. They usually are what teachers focus on when they teach the language in formal settings.

This strand of the Reading Rope consists of single straps: 

  • Phonological Awareness
  • Decoding (and Spelling)
  • Sight Recognition

 

Phonological Awareness is the ability to understand that words are made of sounds. Children learn to speak without being told what is a word, where it starts and where it ends. Very young children would learn full sentences and repeat them without knowing where the different elements of the sentence start and end. They just imitate speech. For example, they would say things like “thank you very much” as “one word” or “one expression”. It is only when they are exposed to sentences where “thank you” is used with other elements of a sentence, like “thank you Anna/mom/dad/…” or “thank you for closing the door/giving me the cup…”, that they can start separating the parts and get a feeling of the underlying patterns of their languages. They need to make many mistakes before they get it right!
For multilinguals this means that they need to be exposed to their languages in multiple settings, get input in various topics and actively use the languages up to their level of proficiency. And, I would say this is a bonus: they get to make many many more mistakes than monolinguals, as they need to understand patterns of two, three, four or more languages!

 

Multilinguals get to make many more mistakes to understand the patterns of two, three, four or more languages!

 

When children learn to read they learn to recognize that the sound chains correspond to words they can see on the page. They see the spaces in between two words and will develop a sense of word or morphological structure of the word, before even knowing what these terms mean.

Children who grow up with multiple languages have a broader repertoire of phonemes, of sounds, that they need to transfer into letters or letter combinations, that they then can decode whilst reading and maybe writing what they are pronouncing.

Our children not only need to become aware of the different pronunciation of sounds, but also discriminate the individual sounds across their languages. This is a major workout, because sounds don’t correspond to the same letters or letter combinations in all languages (see fig. here below). This awareness can be built by learning that words can be broken down into different sounds and syllables.
To facilitate learning to differentiate between sounds and syllables in all their languages, rhyming, blending, segmenting and manipulating speech sounds is a great way to foster this skill! 

A playful and effective way to raise phonological awareness is by doing rhyming activities and games. Find words that rhyme, either with the first letter or sound, or the word ending. Be ware that across the languages our children know, they can retrieve many words that might seem “not matching” in the target language. But as they have all the words in their different languages at their disposal, they will try to find what works, no matter in what language!

Like for example Kuh and Schuh (cow and shoe in German) rhyme with flew and flue. Does this seem complicating the learning process? Not really. Our children will recognize that the sounds are rendered differently in words across their languages once they start reading, i.e. decoding them in texts.

In some schools, teachers take their pupil’s broad repertoire of words across multiple languages as an advantage to explore these languages in a more effective way for the children. Through translanguaging practices they allow children to explore their full linguistic repertoire. Knowing how words can be manipulated to change meaning is a great and fun activity to do! Our children can, for example, play with composita, i.e. compound words, and see how they work, how they are formed across languages – if the target language has compound words, of course!

Also knowing how to segment words, for example that the plural is formed with an additional –s at the end of a word in English, like car–cars, but also by adding -ren like child–children, can lead to a transfer of these rules to the other languages our children know. They might then apply the same rule to their other languages and say bambinos as plural of bambino singular (boy, Italian), whereas the plural in Italian is formed by changing the last vowel into –i in these kind of words, i.e. bambini.
With these examples you can see that it is important for teachers to know what other languages their pupils use. This is why I always encourage parents to inform their children’s teachers about what words they use in their home languages, what level of fluency they have attained, if they started decoding the home language already etc.. This way, teachers can help our children transfer the rules and skills they learn in the school language to their other or home languages – and vice versa!

 

Decoding (and Spelling) is what we do when we start reading: we sound out the letters one by one: eg. C-A-T, and focus on the smallest part of the word – the letters. Whilst blending letters, we learn about silent letters and about the complex structure of some languages, like English, where the combination of letters <ough> can be pronounced in many different ways (rough /?f/, plough /a?/, through /u:/, though /o?/, thought /??/, thorough /?/, cough /?f/, hiccough /?p/ , lough /?k/), or French ways to spell out the sound /o/ (eau, chapeau, chaud, travaux, drôle).

Our children will be proficient or fluent in decoding when they can sound out all the words that are on the page, even if they don’t know yet what every single word means.

Teaching our children how to decode words can seem easy at first, especially when we choose simple words where the correspondence between letters and sounds is easy, transparent, but when it then comes to more complex sound combinations, we need to know the rules.

If your home language is transparent, i.e. the sound and letter correspondence is clear and there are not many rules, like C_i,e (i.e. <c> before <i> or <e>) is pronounced like a /t??/ (i.e. voiceless post-alveolar sibilant affricate) (cielo, citare, cena) in Italian, but C_a,o,u (i.e. <c> before <a>, <o> or <u>) is pronounced /k/ (i.e. voiceless velar plosive) (casa, cosa, cubo).

The more transparent your home language, the easier it will be to teach it to your children.

Pic. from Transfer effects from language processing to visual attention dynamics: The impact of orthographic transparency

© 2022 The Authors. British Journal of Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The British Psychological Society.

  

Sight Recognition of words refers to the words we can recognize instantly, automatically, effortlessly, without sounding them out, or guessing them. We usually start with words that begin with a letter we know, for example A in apple, and at some point we recognize words that are used more frequently and that we don’t need to “read” anymore but “recognize” as such, like “I” or “can”. It takes time and practice to get there, and what for monolinguals seems easy can be more complicated for multilinguals! Sounding out “can” for an English speaking child who wasn’t exposed to German or Italian, is easy. But an Italian or German child might pronounce the vowel slightly differently. Depending on what our children already can read, i.e. decode, in their home languages, these “easy” or “sight words” can represent a real challenge.

This is why I always suggest to let teachers know what kind of texts and words our children already decode easily in our home languages. It will help the teachers assess our children’s skills much better. Furthermore, learning new words in the school languages that our children don’t know in our home language yet, is even more difficult for our children: they might be able to decode them, spell them right, but not know what they mean! 

We, parents, can help teachers understand the transfer our children do from one language to the other by sharing information about what texts our children know, what words they actively use and what topics they are familiar with.  

When we teach our children to read in our home language, we need to be aware that we are teaching multilingual readers, not “multiple monolinguals”! Depending on their level of fluency in their languages, and if they are simultaneous or successive bi/multilinguals, they might always have all their languages at their disposal and try to blend them in the task.

What we can do is to help them literally sort out the rules by repeating words, spelling them out and playing with the different ways we can form words across our languages.

Parents usually are not teachers and therefore should choose what skill they can and want to help their children develop.

We can easily foster the skills in the language comprehension strand by exposing them to a rich and varied language, and help them recognize some words, i.e. those they come across regularly in the texts we read with them.

One important tip here: never, ever compare your children with children who are growing up as monolinguals! That is unfair. It is like comparing apples with bananas. Also, every child develops in their own way when it comes to learning how to read and how to process multiple languages! 

 

My final 5 tips:

1. choose texts about topics your child is interested in, your child can relate to.

2. choose moments to read when your child is up to it, i.e. not tired, not distracted.

3. choose moments where you are relaxed, motivated and curious.

4. choose texts that are slightly above the level of your child: your child should be able to understand more than 80% of what is written on the page (no need to know exactly each word, but understanding a word thanks to the context already counts!)

5. follow the 20-80% rule: 20% of challenge, and at least 80% of fun! 

 

 

This text is an excerpt of my online course E.N.J.O.Y. raising children with multiple languages for parents of 4 to 10 year-olds

 

4 communication styles in (multilingual) children

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We all have different communication styles. And so do our children.
Parents often assume (or expect) that their children will have their same communication style, but that is not as simple. Especially in multilingual families, communication styles can be very different and children who grow up in such settings might switch back and forth between these different communication styles.

When we know what communication style our children have, we can understand them better, not only because of what they say, but also how they say it, what makes them communicate in one way or the other.

Elaine Weitzman  distinguishes 4 communication styles in children* that depend on 2 factors:

  • their ability to initiate interactions with others
  • their ability to respond when other people initiate an interaction with them. 

The way we interact with others differs from culture to culture, from language to language. Depending on the communication style that is most common in a language – which affects or influences intonations, turn takings, making (or not making) eye contact, the pace of a communication and the way adults communicate with children in general – our children will most probably follow the one of the language they are exposed to for the majority of the time. Or, in other words, the language of the person they are mostly communicating with. This can be a parent, peers, teachers etc.. 

I take Elaine Weitzman’s the 4 communication styles in children (see here below) as starting point to explain the different communication patterns that we can observe not only across cultures but across languages.

This is only a very generic explanation that I usually analyze more in detail with the multilingual and multicultural families I work with.

1) Sociable Communication Style

Children with a sociable communication style initiate interactions with others and are quick to respond to others’ initiations. Even if they only have a few words or are hard to understand, they continue to try and communicate with others. They are often considered “outgoing” or “extrovert”. Sometimes they insist communicating even if the other person can’t really understand what they mean.

If one of your child’s culture and languages is one that fosters and encourages this sociable communication style, i.e. interactions of children (or at any age) with adults and peers, chances are high that your child will have this style too.

But even if parents, and communities our children grow up in, foster this communication style, it is not a given that our children will adopt this style and feel comfortable with it. There are many factors that influence a child’s communication style (character traits, experience in different settings etc.).

2) Reluctant Communication Style

Children with a reluctant communication style are more likely to respond to others than to initiate an interaction on their own.

They can be considered “shy” and might need time to “warm up”, to become comfortable with new people and new environments. When these children are not given time to adjust and respond at their own pace, they tend to “fly under the radar” or risk to be labelled as “not fluent in the language”, although they are often much more capable than they appear!

Those who grew up in a context where children are not encouraged to interact with others (especially not adults), might need some time to adjust to a more “sociable” communication style. Especially in multilingual and multicultural contexts, it is difficult to determine if a child has this communication style because he/she is rather cautious in general, or because this is a style that is fostered by his/her parents.

Teachers who work with children coming from diverse cultural backgrounds, should be trained to understand and support the children’s different ways to relate and communicate with others.

3) Inactive Communication Style

Elaine Weitzman defines this style as passive communication style, as the passive behaviour of children with this particular style can be a sign of autism or other developmental issues.

Children with this communication style seem hard to connect with because they seem uninterested in people and objects – also toys, games etc. A developmental delay, a sickness or being on medication can lead to this more “inactive” communication style. – I prefer the term of “inactive” as I assume that these children are, in some way, receptive for their environment, i.e. that they understand and connect with their parents, teachers, siblings, friends etc. at least to some extent.

This is why I distinguish two (or more) categories of children with this communication style: those who have a developmental delay, a sickness or are on medication, which affects their way to connect with others, and those who have this more inactive communication style because they don’t understand the language (yet) or don’t know how to behave in given situations (yet)!

In fact, children who are schooled in an additional language, i.e. that is not one of their home languages and they are still in the adaptation and adjusting phase, can have this kind of communication style in specific situations only. This is very important to know because this helps us to find ways to help our children become “proactive”.

If your child has this communication style in specific societal contexts only,  it is advisable to explain this to the teachers and to invite them to find ways to interact with your children’s language, or to find ways to bridge between the home languages and the daycare/school language.

If after a few months the child still struggles with becoming confident in the new setting, despite the help from the teachers and environment (including the parents, of course), it is advisable to contact a child psychologist.

 


4) Own Agenda Communication Style

Children with this own agenda communication style, usually initiate communications with others only when they need something. They can be found playing independently and alone. It might be difficult to get a message across to these children as they seem as if they are in their own little world. They might struggle to successfully play and share with others. There are several reasons for children to have this own agenda communication style. It can be that they are the only child, that they are not used to social interactions with peers or other adults (yet), that they are used to play by themselves, or that for some reason they have problems to connect with others.  

One reason for children to have this communication style are hearing problems: they simply don’t hear when others’ speak to them, and only react when they are addressed through eye contact or touching the arm or shoulder for example. It is always advisable to check out the hearing of the child and to observe him/her in a variety of settings and situations.

If children with this communication style are schooled in an additional language that is not one of their home languages and that are still adjusting to the new language and environment, it is, once again, advisable for parents to explain the situation to teachers and to invite them to find ways to bridge between the home languages and the daycare/school language, or to find ways to interact with the child in his/her language. 

This is only a short overview and introduction about communication styles in children and some ideas on how they can apply to multilingual and multicultural children.

  • What communication style best describes your child most of the time?
  • Does your child have the same communication style in all his/her languages?
  • Does your child have the same communication style in all the societal settings, i.e. when at home with the family, at the daycare/school, with extended family and friends etc.?

If your child has an inactive, reluctant  or own agenda communication style: does she/he have the same style in all his/her languages? Does he or she have the same style in all societal settings, i.e. with adults she knows (like parents, and other adults in their daily life) and peers, in formal and informal circumstances?

If your child currently has predominantly one of the aforementioned communication styles, it can be that either your child has hearing problems (maybe has an ear infection), in which case it is advisable to let your infant’s or toddler’s hearing be checked (especially if they are prone to ear infections). If your child has one of these three communication styles but does not have an ear infection, is not ill and doesn’t take medications, and struggles with communicating, they might need some support and encouragement to get involved in interactions.

All children benefit from parent’s and other people’s efforts to make interactions more successful, interesting and engaging. If your school aged child has one of these three communication styles in specific situations only, it might be that he or she is struggling with either the language, the situation (at school or at home) or with peers/friends.

In any case, it would be helpful and beneficial for your child, if you could help him/her become more confident in sharing their thoughts, communicate effectively with you, so that you, as a parent, can understand what is going on and help or find help. 

If you want to find out how to optimize the communication with your children to support their way to communicate and connect with others in the most effective way, don’t hesitate to contact me.

And if you are looking for ways to foster understanding and speaking in a fun and entertaining way with your 0 to 15+ year old children have a look at our Toolbox for Multilingual Families, where Ana Elisa Miranda and I share 60 activities that foster understanding and speaking. 

Last but not least: multilinguals can have different communication styles depending on the language they speak (which doesn’t mean that they have multiple personalities…)

 

Some more questions: 

  • Do your children have different communication styles?
  • What communication style did you have when you were a child?
  • What style can you relate to most?
  • What style makes you feel comfortable/uncomfortable?

Please let me know in the comments here below.

*Weitzman, E. (2017) It Takes Two To Talk: A Practical guide for Parents of Children with Language Delays, Toronto, ON: The Hanen Centre.

– Finding out the communication style of your children is important to better support their language development – at home and at school. It is one aspect that you learn in my online course ENJOY Raising children with multiple languages for parents of 0-4 year olds.


All pictures © Canva.com

Do multilingual children automatically become multilingual adults?

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Everyone is talking about multilingualism. Until recently there were still many concerns about a multilingual upbringing – it was feared that children would not be able to speak one or the other language ‘properly’ (whatever this means!) – we now know that multilingualism has all sorts of positive effects on speaking, thinking and acting.

It is no longer difficult for parents-to-be to find information and specific advice on how to raise a child with multiple languages. However, the vast majority of guides, academic projects, and articles on multilingualism focus solely on the toddler and preschool years. Most of the guides encourage parents to maintain and support the family languages. They should also not be intimidated by advice that suggests to prioritize the use of the local language over the family languages, because the first few years are oh so important for a solid language acquisition.

The older the children get, the fewer advice from professionals one can find. It seems that multilingual exposure that needs to be supported especially in the earlier years of language acquisition, is completed once children start attending school. Or as if it is assumed that a good start leads to lifelong success.

Many families manage to support their family languages at home, sometimes with the help of babysitters or friends who speak the same language. But as soon as children start preschool, kindergarten or school, where they are increasingly exposed to the community language, many parents begin to doubt whether and how they can keep their family languages up to speed. Some let teachers and others convince them that the language of the community or school is now more important for their child to fully integrate in school and society, and be academically successful.

The fact that this goes to the expense of the family language is considered by many families as a natural consequence of linguistic and cultural integration. Others, who have the intent to preserve the family language, do not see enough opportunities to do so in everyday life and are looking for help.

Weekend schools are a popular solution.

Once a week, children can immerse themselves in their family languages outside of the family, and learn to read and write. Families who cannot afford these extra hours per week or who are not offered this opportunity either come to terms with a decrease or gradual loss of family language, or they revert to their own resources. Some parents become language teachers – with varying degrees of success.

Additional family language lessons work for younger school children, but the older children get, the more these lessons compete with sports and other hobbies. Furthermore, once children are in secondary school, there is simply no more time for extra lessons – not to mention the adolescents’ diminishing desire for attending them.

Many parents and teachers turst that the language skills children learn at school can automatically be transferred to the family language – this has been mentioned in research since the 1970s (see Jim Cummins Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis and subsequent studies). The fact that language skills – understanding, speaking, reading and writing – are transferable skills is not an issue. However, the required active participation of parents and teachers in the school for this to happen is often underestimated.

Children improve their school language skills enormously as soon as they start their education. They learn to read and write in the school language, they learn spelling rules, and they learn to tell stories and to write in a coherent manner. While the focus is on the school language, the linguistic goals in the family languages tend to be neglected. Children are encouraged to read in the school language and although many of them were eagerly read to in their family languages when they were preschoolers, they do not reach for a book in the non-school language once they start school. The step from being read to to independent reading is not a given. The pace of language development in the non-school language slows down early on. Elementary – or emergent to early-fluent – reading and writing is usually also possible in the family language, but children’s literacy skills often do not go beyond a short letter (or email) to grandma or a short text message.

The support schools offer in the family languages varies considerably. International schools offer lessons in some family languages for native speakers; other schools offer foreign language lessons. Even if one’s family language is taught as a subject, the language goal is often to be expected at the lower level of competence. Furthermore, the same teaching material is used for native speakers as for second language learners, which means that native speakers experience their family language as unappealing and boring, and drop the subject. Other students fail because of the teacher’s insistence on memorizing grammar rules or translating verbatim – but simultaneous bilinguals are not translators, they ‘store’ their languages separately and use them in different contexts.

Reading and writing a language does not come naturally like understanding and speaking. As Dr. Louisa Moats emphasizes: learning to read is rocket-science. Marianne Wolf (2008: 222) explains this difficulty with the emphasizing that brains are not wired to read: 

“Each brain of each ancestral reader had to learn to connect multiple regions in order to read symbolic characters. Each child today must do the same. Young novice readers around the globe must learn how to link up all the perceptual, cognitive, linguistic, and motor systems necessary to read. These systems, in turn, depend on utilizing older brain structures, whose specialized regions need to be adapted, pressed into service, and practiced until they are automatic ”.

Parents who raise their children multilingually should ask themselves the following questions:

  • What are the short term and long term goals of a multilingual upbringing?
  • After the initial enthusiasm when fostering your family languages with your babies and toddlers, what exactly do you want to achieve in the end?
  • Who can support your children (and you!) to attain their linguistic goals?
  • Do you find it sufficient if your child can converse with relatives in your home country?
  • Would you like your children to be able to function in two or more languages as adults, i.e. to be able to write and read in such a way that they can cope with their studies or professional life?

If the latter is the goal, this is hardly possible without appropriate instruction. After all, the school language is also a school subject from the first to the last day of school – here we do not assume that it suffices to hear, read and speak this language everywhere outside of school.

Why then should the use of a family language be enough to achieve full competence in all language skills? Only because you have learned to argue in language A does not mean that you can do the same in language B, even if you use language B as naturally as language A.

We know from Dutch students who after completing their education in the Dutch school system start studying in English, that even if they have successfully completed their school English lessons and at the corresponding CEFR level, they find it difficult to formulate in English as precisely as they could do in their mother tongue*. – How should this even work in a language that they not even received formal instruction in? 

What solutions do we suggest?

  • It is important to decide at an early stage who is part of our multilingual village and to establish in a realistic way which language goals are possible for the children in the social and linguistic environment in which they grow up.

“We need a multilingual village to raise a multilingual child” – Ute Limacher-Riebold

  • Parents should continue to cultivate their family languages, i.e. not only speak, but also carry on offering their children the opportunity to expand and deepen their language skills. If not otherwise possible, with the help of weekend courses and other activities in the family language. It is equally important for young people that parents set a good example: that they maintain their family language themselves, for example by reading or watching a film. One should also not forget the culture that is closely linked with the family language. The love for a language can go through the stomach – with typical dishes, typical celebrations etc.. Holidays in the home country or countries of the parents can intensify the young people’s knowledge and connection with this country.

“Language doesn’t stand alone. A language always includes a culture that is conveyed along with the language. ” – Katja B. Zaich

  • Teachers who have native speakers or bilingual speakers in their foreign language classes can accommodate these students with just a few resources. Most of them have little trouble with understanding, speaking, and reading, but with a little guidance they could improve their writing skills tremendously. Given their existing language skills, they benefit more from grammar in context than from memorized rules, lists and tricks. Although they need to expand their vocabulary, there is little point in dealing with bilingual vocabulary lists. This does not mean any significant extra work for the teachers and can be a valuable asset to the lessons for everyone.

Therefore, if we want our children to stay multilinguals, i.e. keep on improving their language skills in their home languages, we need to set clear and realistic goals, and find the right support throughout their childhood (and beyond).

  

Dr. Katja B. Zaich is a Germanist and lives as a language trainer, translator and author in the Netherlands. For years she has been teaching bilingual primary school children as part of a “weekend course” in their mother tongue, German. She is the author or co-author of several German textbooks for (adult) Dutch-speaking learners. She has two bilingual teenage daughters. www.zaich.nl

Dr. Ute Limacher-Riebold is a linguist and offers professional support and advice to multilingual families at Ute’s International Lounge, with the aim of promoting family languages and efficient communication in multilingual families. Her S.M.A.R.T. Family Language Plan© can be tailored to suit any multilingual family. She currently collaborates at a EU project PEaCH, which aims to “preserve and promote the European language and cultural heritage by strengthening bilingual children and families”. She is the co-author of the guide “How to raise a bilingual child” which was created as part of the project, and of “The Toolbox for Multilingual Families”. She has three multilingual teenage children. UtesInternationalLounge.com

* We use the term mother tongue as “person has grown up speaking from early childhood” / “their most dominant language”/ “the language they are most fluent in” .

Mentioned in the article:

Cummins, Jim, Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children, Review of Educational Research, 1979, 49, 222–251. (and many other studies that followed!)

Wolf, Marianne, Proust and the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain, Harper Perennial, 2008. 

Louisa C. Moats, is project director, Washington D.C. site of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Interventions Project, and clinical associate professor of pediatrics, University of Texas, Houston, Health Sciences Center. Louisa C. Moats is a nationally recognized authority on how children learn to read and why some fail to learn. Widely acclaimed as a researcher, speaker, consultant, and trainer, Moats has developed the landmark professional development program LETRS for teachers and reading specialists (find out more here).

– This article has been published by the authors also on LinkedIn – in German, Dutch and English. 

How many languages are too many?

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Have you ever wondered how many languages a child can learn at once or if there is a ‘window’ of opportunity?

Can it ever be “too late” to learn another language?

Can we learn multiple languages at any time?

And what are the cognitive benefits of learning more than one language?

 

You can find some answers in an interview with research psychologists and a language teacher about how kids acquire second, third or fourth languages and how it helps to feel even more strived to bring up multilingual children.

We don’t need to hear more reasons in favour of bringing up children with multiple languages.

There is no reason to doubt or to fear that it could confuse or overwhelm children. 

 

1) When should a child begin to “learn” or acquire a second/third etc. language?

This question hasn’t been asked in the interview which in 2024 is, alas, no longer available, but Laura-Ann Pettitto (Professor at the University of Toronto) points out that in early years, when children are still in the acquiring phase of the first language, they will use the same brain tissue for all the other languages they are exposed to. – This has been confirmed by many studies since.

If children are exposed to languages later in life, it seems that different parts of the brain are involved (3:00 sq) because “the part of the brain that is responsible for processing language is on a maturational timetable and we know very clearly what that timetable is, when the periods are most sensitive” (4:00).

Interestingly, this is not the case for all the parts of language. Some parts “remain open for life, like vocabulary and there are other parts of language, which are on a maturational timetable. Our brain reaches a stable processing capacity and then stops because it’s achieved it’s stable state” (4:20). – Now, it’s quite hard to determine when this happens because the different parts of language are affected differently by maturation.

What is important to know is that early exposure is ideal for good phonological competence and good syntactic competence (4:44). – I am always sceptic when someone says “good” or “native” language competence. It is not clear what is meant with that.

Young children have the advantage to articulate sounds easier because of their palate not being hardened yet, but they do need several years to be able to articulate more complex sounds because of the motor skills of their apparato fonatorio, the coordiation of their mouth, lips, tongue, air etc.  

Peter Gazzellone, teacher at the Ryerson Community School, presents the Integrated language program at his school. This program offers Arabic, Mandarin, Spanish and African heritage language lessons.

“The students get to choose from one of these languages and it’s usually the language that they speak at home” (5:29). The children also learn French (from grade 4) and then from kindergarten up to grade 8 all the children at school learn another language. – In Europe we have several immersion programs and know that this program benefits the children.

We all know that the task of acquiring a language later in life, when we’ve already acquired our first language (and learned it at school) is a different, much harder task.

 

2) Can adults learn new languages as “good” as children?

There is a very clear answer: yes, they can.

If adults want to make it possible and have the time for it, they will succeed.

Ellen Bialystock, Professor at the University of York, points out that “children are given the opportunity to learn languages in a way that supports every part of this very difficult task (…) everyone they interact with interacts with them for the purpose of helping them learn language”.

If adults had this opportunity and would “quit [their] job for five years, use a mentor who will speak to [them] at exactly the level [they] need (…) [they] will be very successful” (2:00 ssq).

Life, usually doesn’t give us that chance and “the main difference about learning languages as a child and as an adult is life“.

If adults want to learn a language, total immersion and the passion to learn it are the most important premisses to succeed.

Ellen Bialystock suggestion is meant for people who want to learn a new language “at home”, who don’t have the opportunity to learn it in loco.

But if we have to learn the language because we move to the country, it’s more probable that we will attain a very good fluency in a very short time due to our full immersion.

If total immersion is not possible, there are many other possibilities to create a monolingual exposure in the target language in real life or online etc. 

 

3) How much exposure?

There have been published many articles about the quantity of time someone should talk a language – or more than one – per day. For many years, parents were told that 20% of waking time is what we should aim for if we want our children to acquire and learn our language.

But the amount of exposure per day or week depends on our  language goals, our capacities to support our languages. Do we want our children to be able to understand and speak the language, or also to read and write? How much time can we invest? Who else can help us with this?

Laura-Ann Petitto points out that “systematical exposure is more important than the amount of time of the exposure. The human brain doesn’t work on quantity but on quality. Therefore, regular systematic exposure “with stable users across different contexts which are rich and varied” is what will help children reach fluency.

This means that immersion exposure at school only is not enough to become utterly fluent. It has to be enriched by “cultural material, linguistic material, movies etc” also outside the context at school.

 

4) Do all children have the same ability?

This is like with everything in life: some are more prone to learn languages, others are better in other sectors. Ellen Bialystock points out that “what our minds are prepared to do is make everybody a competent speaker of a language that is in the environment without additional effort” (11.00 ssq.). And to answer the question: “some [children or adults!] will find this fun and exciting and some will find it more effortful”.

 

5) Will children always have one dominant language?

We all know that there are differences even among multilingual siblings about their language preferences. And Laura-Ann Petitto confirms that “children have preferences for languages and the preferences are set by various things outside of our biology” (12:45 sq).

It depends on the language their friends, their family are speaking. Children are also very economic in their language choice.

About the concept of economy:  “a tenet or tendency shared by all living organisms – may be referred to as “the principle of least effort”, which consists in tending towards the minimum amount of effort that is necessary to achieve the maximum result, so that nothing is wasted.” cfr. Alessandra Vicentini, Università di Milano, The Economy Principle in Language. Notes and Observations from Early Modern English Grammars).

If children know that their parents understand all the languages they’re supposed to speak, they will probably prefer one of the dominant languages in their social context (the host country, school etc.), using the “minimum amount of effort to achieve the maximum result”.

The human biology enables us to extract patterns from one and the other language and to compare and fit them, but language acquisition is more about the need to speak this language.

 

6) Do multilinguals know less vocabulary than monolinguals?

Don’t worry about the vocabulary children have in one of the languages they are acquiring. Multilingual children seem to be “behind” their monolingual peers, but when we add all the words they understand and use in all their languages, they usually are at the same level if not above the norm. “We know from many studies that a multilingual child knows at least as many words and probably more and at least as many concepts and probably more as monolinguals”. (15:20 ssq). – And we should never forget that these are all averages!

If you look at the distribution of the data, “most children are in the normal part of the curve where it could go either way. The bilingual could have a higher English (or other language) vocabulary than the monolingual” (15:50).

If you take the vocabulary tests that are used to assess vocabulary – and the interesting part is, that they’re usually given out only in one language! – “and you divide the words up into words they are likely to encounter at home and words they are likely to encounter at school there is no difference!” (16:20 ssq).

There is definitely no academic risk or compromise to the main purpose for learning many languages (from an early stage on!).

Two final, very encouraging quotes for every multilingual from Laura-Ann Petitto:

The human vocabulary stays open to work for life.

The brain is not biologically set to learn only one language.

 

Please watch the interview I had with Prof. Ellen Bialystok in our series Raising Multilinguals LIVE on youtube:

 

Multilingual Assessment in the Netherlands

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Some international families send their children to international schools, especially if they move frequently  this seems to be the best option as the curriculum of international schools is expected to be similar all over the world. Unfortunately this is not the case. There are sometimes major differences even within the same kind of "international" school and, to make the school choice even more complicated for parents, the term itself of "international" appears to be misused by many schools. Some schools call themselves "international" but have a very monocultural curriculum. – But this will be the topic of another post.
What international families struggle the most with when it comes to new schools, are the assessments. Will their children be assessed in the "right way"? What kind of assessments will be done and when? Will their children be assigned to the right group in literacy, maths, foreign languages etc.? And what if their children's academic skills are underestimated?

Especially multilingual children are still assessed with tests that are designed for monolinguals. This often leads to a very distorted image of the real skills of the child or teenager and can have great impact on his or her self confidence in school and academic success.
One of my services as Language Consultant is to offer the support to international families and schools during those assessments of multilingual children, in order to make sure that academic skills are assessed with using also the other languages (home languages or other languages they were schooled before). Willemijn Miedema, Master student at University Groningen in Multilingualism was so kind to write this post about the topic.

 

“What do I need to know about assessment for my multilingual child?” Norm, Demand & Assistance in The Netherlands and the International Community

by Willemijn Miedema

 

In general, assessments are tools to indicate a persons' skills and competences, however, assessments are also used to grade primary and secondary school children.

Multilingual children are in need of "multiple language" forms of assessment to monitor all their language and academic skills for both testing and securing knowledge in all their languages.

Monolingual education has been considered as a pillar of the nation states founded shortly after World War II, by governments consolidating their newly designed countries. However globalization in current times demands other approaches in education as a way to include all children with various linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

Multilingual assessment is being supported by the ECML, the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe, providing both guidelines and developing projects for multilingual teaching.

For more information on multilingual teaching in The Netherlands, please go to: https://www.nuffic.nl/, the website of NUFFIC, the Dutch organization for internationalization in education.

 

In: “The Assessment of Emergent Bilinguals: Supporting English Language Learners” by Kate Mahony (published 2017) four methods of multiple language assessment are being introduced:

  • one-to-one-communication using discussion and interviews as means of assessment,
  • performance assessment which makes use of active tasks performed by the student such as a giving a presentation,
  • selected response assessment by e.g. multiple choice tests,
  • written response assessment by means of essay writing with rubrics or the writing of short responses to a question (Mahony, K., 2017: 38-42).

 

A method to test multilingualism itself is TBLA, translation-based-language-assessment, in which students are tested on their practical language skills, with emphasis on real life usage, rather than grammatical and vocabulary skills (Schissel et al., 2018, p.171).

 

Methods of assessment can differ regionally and depend on the school subject and regulations of school assessment set by the education department of the local or national authority.

Many schools have integrated parental participation in their school councils and support parental joint decision making.

Together with the school board parents can look into the possibilities for multilingual assessment and/or contact experts in the field such as linguists and language consultants to implement and develop methods in multilingual assessment.

 

 

Further readings:

Durk Gorter & Jasone Cenoz (2017) Language education policy and multilingual assessment, Language and Education, 31:3, 231-248, DOI: 10.1080/09500782.2016.1261892.

Jamie L. Schissel, Constant Leung, Mario López-Gopar & James R. Davis (2018) Multilingual learners in language assessment: assessment design for linguistically diverse communities, Language and Education, 32:2, 167-182, DOI: 10.1080/09500782.2018.1429463.